Engineered intestinal tissue and uses thereof

ABSTRACT

Disclosed are methods of assessing the ability of a candidate therapeutic agent to reverse, reduce or prevent intestinal injury by a potential toxic agent using a three-dimensional, engineered, bioprinted, biological intestinal tissue model. Also disclosed are methods of assessing the effect of an agent on intestinal function, the method comprising contacting the agent with a three-dimensional, engineered, bioprinted, biological intestinal tissue model.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention

The invention is in the field of intestinal tissue models and their usein assays. Disclosed are methods of assessing the ability of a candidatetherapeutic agent to reverse, reduce or prevent intestinal injury by apotential toxic agent using a three-dimensional, engineered, bioprinted,biological intestinal tissue model. Also disclosed are methods ofassessing the effect of an agent on intestinal function, the methodcomprising contacting the agent with a three-dimensional, engineered,bioprinted, biological intestinal tissue model.

Background Art

The intestinal mucosa plays a crucial role in regulating absorption,first-pass metabolism, clearance, drug-drug interactions, and can be asite of drug induced toxicity. Current in vitro systems and preclinicalmodels utilized in drug development do not adequately recapitulate thecomplexities of native human intestinal tissue, leading to low safetyand efficacy predictability and attrition in drug development.

Current preclinical models are limited in their ability to capture thecomplexities and function of human intestinal tissue [1-5]. Systemicavailability, diminished efficacy, and off target effects remainchallenges to the successful prediction of candidate drugs andcontribute to attrition in drug development. Many predictive challengescan be attributed to the lack of preclinical tools to model thecomplexities of intestinal function in vitro [1-3]. Oral delivery is themost common method for drug administration. The intestine plays acrucial role in the extent of absorption of orally administered drugsand first-pass metabolism. The intestine also serves as critical site ofoff target toxicity for compounds such as NSAIDS [4] andchemotherapeutic agents [5], and serves as a site of drug-druginteractions [2, 6]. Standard 2D systems lack the complexity toaccurately model outcomes such as low bioavailability, the result of acombination of low permeability and interplay of metabolic enzymes withinflux and efflux transporters in the intestinal epithelium [3]. Thepredominant in vitro models used to study intestinal bioavailability andtoxicity include intestinal microsomes and 2D monolayers. Microsomes area convenient tool for the initial assessment of metabolism, but cannotmodel cellular level outcomes.

2D cell monolayer models lack native context of cell-cell andcell-matrix interactions and are phenotypically limited, while geneticdisparity of animal models may not provide a high correlation with humanoutcomes [16]. Current in vitro intestinal models include 2D cellmonolayer models of cell lines originating from colorectal and duodenaltumors (e.g., Caco-2, HT-29, HT29-18N2 and HuTu80). However, alteredmetabolism in tumor cells compared to normal tissue is a majordisadvantage of these models. And, these tumor models do not representfeatures of native intestinal epithelium. The Caco-2 cell line is themost established cell model used to mimic passive transport and predictintestinal absorption. Limitations of the Caco-2 model include a lack ofP-450 metabolizing enzyme expression and activity, lack of robustintestinal transporter expression and function, variation with passagenumber, and inconsistencies between clones in the line. Other 2D modelsinclude intestinal epithelial cells which, along with other cell lines,may have limited intestinal epithelial function due in part to theirisolation from the other specialized epithelial cell types (ex: gobletcells, Paneth cells) as well as from the other supportive cell typespresent in the intestinal wall.

Limitations of commonly used cell lines have sparked the development ofmethods to use primary human intestinal cells. Monocultures of primaryintestinal epithelial cells more closely resemble in vivo tissue but mayhave limited intestinal epithelial function in part to their isolationfrom the other supportive cell types present in the intestinal wall. Inaddition, testing in isolated epithelial monocultures prevents theability to see effects on the interstitial and immune cells present innative tissue.

More complex 3D structures include intestinal segments and gut organoidsderived from whole tissues or biopsies. The discovery of organoids toexpand primary human intestinal cells [9, 10] or differentiatepluripotent stem cells [11] revealed another path to model the intestinein vitro. Organoids can be derived from all regions of the intestinaltract [12] and have been applied to many areas of intestinal researchincluding organ development, disease modeling, and regenerative medicine[13, 14]. These structures suffer from low availability (from humans),limited viable lifespan in vitro, and may lack in vivo organ physiology.Notably, the closed lumens and the inward orientation of epithelia inintestinal organoids makes the apical surface relatively inaccessiblefor the direct stimulation they would normally experience in vivo, andmakes organoids incompatible with most standard ADME/Tox assays.

Intestinal slices derived from human tissue can provide the correctcellular architecture and complexity as well as level of metabolicactivity of native tissue. Intestinal slices, however, have limitedviability ex vivo and only function for about 24 hours. Furthermore,these tissues are not compatible with cryopreservation, which limitstheir use to short term studies [15].

Animal models are frequently used to estimate compound bioavailability,however genetic differences can lead to disparity in expression ofmetabolic enzymes and transporters compared to humans which can resultin poor prediction [2, 3, 16].

To overcome existing limitations of the current in vitro systems, a nautomated bioprinting platform was utilized to develop a reproducible,highly cellular 3D primary human tissue model to recapitulate keyaspects of the architecture of the native intestinal mucosa. Compared tostandard 2D monolayer cultures, the 3D bioprinted intestinal tissuemodels create a more physiologically relevant environment, allowing forcells to establish cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions found innative tissue. The model, which incorporates a polarized intestinalepithelium supported by an interstitial tissue layer, is compatible withboth histological and standard biochemical ADME/Tox readouts.

The 3D bioprinted intestinal tissues exhibit native-like layeredarchitecture, including polarized epithelial morphology andphysiological barrier function maintained for over two weeks in culture.The 3D bioprinted intestinal tissues express key P450 metabolic enzymesand transporters with similar endogenous levels compared to nativeintestine and demonstrate functional activity of both CYP2C9 and CYP3A4enzymes and P-gp and BCRP efflux transporters. In addition, thebioprinted intestinal tissues respond to known toxicants indomethacinand TNFα with reduced barrier function, increased cytotoxicity, andchanges in gene expression and cell morphology. The fully human primarycell-derived tissue combined with the reproducibility of the bioprintingplatform and compatibility with standard assay approaches make thissystem a novel and practical in vitro tool for ADME/Tox applicationsacross drug development.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides intestinal tissue models that offeradvantages over existing in vitro assay systems by providing anintestinal epithelial cell layer on top of a layer of intestinalinterstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts and, optionally, other keycell types such as myeloid immune cells, smooth muscle cells,endothelial cells and neurons. These intestinal tissue models allow oneto see the impact of treatments in a more holistic system. And, theintestinal tissue models support epithelial morphology and function foran extended period of time in culture, thus enabling chronic studies oftreatments. Because of their multi-cellularity and architecture, theintestinal tissue constructs provide a unique system to studymulti-faceted processes including secretion, transport, cell-cellinteractions and pathogenic processes, including inflammation andcancer.

The intestinal tissue models are valuable alternatives to animal modelsin the pharmaceutical industry for ADME-TOX applications in the leadoptimization stage of drug development as well as disease modelingacross all phases of drug discovery. In one embodiment, the intestinaltissue models described herein incorporate both epithelium and laminapropria to approximate the intestinal mucosa. In another embodiment, thetissue constructs comprise primary human intestinal epithelial cells inan epithelial compartment supported by primary human myofibroblasts inan interstitial compartment. The complexity of the model is optionallyincreased by incorporating additional specialized cell types, forexample, enteroendocrine cells, into the epithelial layer to modelendocrine function while goblet cells can be added to model mucosalbarrier function. Additional complexity is achieved by the addition ofimmune cells or a submucosal compartment comprising endothelial cellsand smooth muscle cells. An advantage of disclosed intestinal tissueconstructs is that they are more physiologically relevant compared totissue constructs having two-dimensional environment. Themulti-cellularity and architecture of the tissues provide a uniqueopportunity to study complex multi-faceted processes of cells in athree-dimensional conformation including secretion, transport, cell-cellinteractions and pathogenic processes. Through these interactions,three-dimensional tissues differentiate in a different manner than cellscultured in a two-dimensional monolayer, activating new signalingpathways and extracellular matrix interactions.

The intestinal tissue models described herein provide an opportunity toaccurately study how compounds affect the intestinal tissue as well asto model pathogenic processes in the intestine. The intestinal tissuemodels disclosed herein are useful for predicting toxicity ofpharmaceutical compounds earlier in the drug development process. Byincorporating both diseased (ex: inflamed or tumor tissue) and normalcell compartments into the same tissue, the impact of therapeutic agentson both healthy and diseased tissue can be assessed in the same tissuesystem. Intestinal tissue constructs comprising primary cells areespecially useful for personalized medicine.

Unexpectedly, the intestinal tissue models described herein made withonly primary epithelial cells in the layer of intestinal epithelialcells express chromogranin A, secrete glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)and mucus, manifest the formation of goblet cells and secondarystructure characteristic of native intestinal tissue, tissue thickeningin culture, and CYP3A4 activity. This indicates that functionalenteroendrocrine cells were produced.

In one embodiment, the invention provides a three-dimensional,engineered, bioprinted, biological intestinal tissue model comprising:

(i) a layer of intestinal interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts;and

(ii) a layer of intestinal epithelial cells on the layer of intestinalinterstitial tissue, to form the three-dimensional, engineered,biological intestinal tissue model.

In some embodiments, at least one of the layer of intestinalinterstitial tissue comprises myofibroblasts and layer of intestinalepithelial cells further comprises at least one type of immune cells. Insome embodiments, the immune cells are myeloid cells. In someembodiments, the myeloid cells are monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils,basophils, eosinophils, dendritic cells or megakaryocytes. In someembodiments the immune cells are lymphoid cells. In some embodiments,the immune cells are present in at least one of (a) the interstitiallayer, (b) the epithelial cell layer, (c) between the interstitial layerand the epithelial cell layer, (d) on top of the epithelial cell layer,and (e) below the interstitial cell layer.

In some embodiments, the layer of intestinal epithelial cells comprisesprimary epithelial cells from a healthy donor. In some embodiments, thelayer of intestinal epithelial cells comprises primary epithelial cellsfrom a diseased donor. In some embodiments, the diseased donor hasceliac disease, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, irritable bowelsyndrome, hemorrhoids, diverticulitis, inflammatory bowel disease,microscopic colitis, lymphocytic colitis, collagenous colitis, anendocrine disorder, a metabolic disorder, obesity, diabetes,dyslipidemia, intestinal or colorectal cancer.

In some embodiments, the layer of intestinal epithelial cells furthercomprises at least one stem cell population. In some embodiments, the atleast one stem cell population is capable of differentiating. In someembodiments, the intestinal tissue model further comprises tumor(s),tumor fragment(s), tumor cells or immortalized cells. In someembodiments, the tumor(s), tumor fragment(s), tumor cells orimmortalized cells are colorectal tumor(s), tumor fragment(s), tumorcells or immortalized cells. In some embodiments, the tumor(s), tumorfragment(s), tumor cells or immortalized cells are present in a layer orcompartment within the intestinal tissue model.

In some embodiments, the layer of intestinal epithelial cells and layerof interstitial tissue comprises primary epithelial cells from a healthydonor. In some embodiments, the layer of intestinal epithelial cells andlayer of interstitial tissue comprises primary epithelial cells from adiseased donor.

In some embodiments, the intestinal tissue model exhibits at least oneof the following:

(a) apical staining of villin;

(b) tight junctions;

(c) an apical brush border;

(d) villi-like structures on the epithelial surface;

(e) a basal lamina between the layer of interstitial tissue and layer ofepithelial cells;

(f) secretes mucus;

(g) expresses CYP3A4;

(h) expresses p-glycoprotein;

(i) expresses glucagon-like peptide-1;

(j) expresses BCRP;

(k) contains enteroendocrine cells; and

(l) contains goblet cells.

In some embodiments, the tissue model does not comprise fully mature,perfusable vasculature. In some embodiments, the tissue model does notcomprise red blood cells. In some embodiments, the tissue model is notinnervated, e.g. by the central nervous system.

In some embodiments, the layer of intestinal interstitial tissuecomprising myofibroblasts and/or the layer of intestinal epithelialcells is substantially a monolayer. In some embodiments, the intestinaltissue model further comprises a biocompatible membrane in contact withthe intestinal tissue layer. In some embodiments, the model is at least2 cell layers thick.

In some embodiments, the intestinal tissue model comprises a pluralityof the intestinal tissue models are configured to form an array. In someembodiments, the array is present in the wells of a microtiter plate. Insome embodiments, the intestinal model is in culture subject to staticculture conditions. In some embodiments, the intestinal model is inculture subject to non-static culture conditions.

In some embodiments, the intestinal tissue model comprises at least onefirst region that comprises normal layers of intestinal interstitialtissue and intestinal epithelial cells and at least one second regionthat comprises layers of intestinal interstitial tissue and intestinalepithelial cells, wherein at least one of the layers of the secondregion comprises cells from a diseased donor.

Also provided is a non-human animal model of an intestinal disorder orinjury comprising a non-human animal implanted therein the intestinaltissue model. In some embodiments, the non-human animal is animmunodeficient rodent.

Also provided is a method of assessing the ability of a candidatetherapeutic agent to reverse, reduce, induce or prevent an intestinaldisorder or injury, the method comprising:

(a) contacting the intestinal tissue model or the non-human animal modelwith the candidate therapeutic agent, wherein the intestinal tissuemodel has a phenotype of an intestinal disorder or injury;

(b) determining the viability or functionality of the intestinal tissuecells; and

(c) assessing the ability of the candidate therapeutic agent to reverse,reduce, induce or prevent an intestinal disorder or injury based on thedetermined viability or functionality of the intestinal tissue cellscompared to a control intestinal tissue model that has not beencontacted with the candidate therapeutic agent.

In some embodiments, the phenotype of an intestinal disorder or injuryis induced by contacting the intestinal tissue model with a treatment,compound, or infectious agent that gives rise to the phenotype. In someembodiments, the phenotype of an intestinal disorder or injury is thepresence of tumor(s), tumor fragment(s), tumor cells, or immortalizedcells in the intestinal tissue model. In some embodiments, the abilityof a candidate therapeutic agent to reverse, reduce, induce or preventan intestinal disorder or injury is reduced tumor(s), tumor fragment(s),tumor cells, or immortalized cells invasion or metastasis.

Also provided is a method of assessing the ability of a candidatetherapeutic agent to reverse, reduce, induce or prevent an intestinaldisorder or injury, the method comprising:

(a) contacting the intestinal tissue model or the non-human animal modelwith the candidate therapeutic agent;

(b) determining the viability or functionality of the intestinal tissuecells; and

(c) assessing the ability of the candidate therapeutic agent to reverse,reduce, induce or prevent an intestinal disorder or injury based on thedetermined viability or functionality of the intestinal tissue cellscompared to a control intestinal tissue model that has not beencontacted with the candidate therapeutic agent.

In some embodiments, the epithelial cells and/or the myofibroblasts ofthe intestinal tissue model are obtained from a diseased donor. In someembodiments, the diseased donor has celiac disease, Crohn's disease,ulcerative colitis, irritable bowel syndrome, hemorrhoids,diverticulititis, inflammatory bowel disease, microscopic colitis,lymphocytic colitis, collagenous colitis, an endocrine disorder, ametabolic disorders, obesity, diabetes, dyslipidemia, intestinal orcolorectal cancer. In some embodiments, the intestinal disorder orinjury is inflammation. In some embodiments, the intestinal disorder orinjury is a physical injury and the intestinal tissue model is subjectedto physical disruption prior to being contacted with the candidatetherapeutic agent. In some embodiments, the intestinal disorder orinjury is a fibrotic disorder. In some embodiments, the intestinaldisorder or injury is an infectious disease. In some embodiments, theintestinal disorder or injury is cancer. In some embodiments, the canceris colorectal cancer.

In some embodiments, the intestinal tissue model is contacted with apotential toxic agent prior to being contacted with the candidatetherapeutic agent. In some embodiments, the potential toxic agent is atoxin, a therapeutic agent, an antimicrobial agent, a metal, anmicroorganisim (e.g., bacteria, virus, parasite, fungus), or anenvironmental agent. In some embodiments, the potential toxic agent isan antiviral, an analgesic agent, an antidepressant agent, a diureticagent, or a proton pump inhibitor. In some embodiments, the potentialtoxic agent is a cytokine, a chemokine, a small molecule drug, a largemolecule drug, a protein or a peptide. In some embodiments, thepotential toxic agent is a chemotherapeutic agent. In some embodiments,the potential toxic agent is ibuprofen, acetaminophen, lithium,acyclovir, amphotericin B, and aminoglycoside, a beta lactams, foscavir,ganciclovir, pentamidine, a quinolone, a sulfonamide, vancomycin,rifampin, adefovir, indinavir, didofovir, tenofovir, methotrexate,lansoprazole, omeprazole, pantopraxole, allopurinol, phenytoin,ifosfamide, gentamycin, or zoledronate. In some embodiments, thepotential toxic agent is radiation. In some embodiments, the potentialtoxic agent is an immune activator or modulator.

In some embodiments, the viability or functionality of the intestinaltissue cells is determined by measuring an indicator of metabolicactivity. In some embodiments, the indicator of metabolic activity isresazurin reduction, tetrazolium salt reduction or ATP level in theintestinal tissue model compared to a control. In some embodiments, theviability or functionality of the intestinal tissue model is barrierfunction compared to a control. In some embodiments, the viability orfunctionality of the intestinal tissue model is drug efflux compared toa control. In some embodiments, the viability or functionality of theintestinal tissue model is cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) activitycompared to a control. In some embodiments, the viability orfunctionality of the intestinal tissue model is RNA or proteinexpression compared to a control. In some embodiments, the viability orfunctionality of the intestinal tissue model is peptide secretioncompared to a control. In some embodiments, the peptide is a cytokine.In some embodiments, the viability or functionality of the intestinaltissue model is determined by histology compared to a control. In someembodiments, the viability or functionality of the intestinal tissuecells is determined by identifying regeneration of the intestinal tissuecells compared to a control. In some embodiments, the viability orfunctionality of the intestinal tissue cells is determined by measuringmucus secretion compared to a control. In some embodiments, theviability or functionality of the intestinal tissue cells is determinedby measuring transporter activity compared to a control. In someembodiments, the viability or functionality of the intestinal tissuecells is determined by measuring enzyme activity compared to a control.In some embodiments, the viability or functionality of the intestinaltissue cells is determined by measuring triglyceride synthesis comparedto a control. In some embodiments, the viability or functionality of theintestinal tissue cells is determined by measuring chylomicron secretionactivity compared to a control. In some embodiments, the viability orfunctionality of the intestinal tissue cells is determined by measuringcollagen production compared to a control. In some embodiments, theviability or functionality of the intestinal tissue epithelial cells ismeasured over time. In some embodiments, provided is a method to reverseor reduce injury by a toxic agent, and the intestinal tissue model iscontacted first with the toxic agent and then with the candidatetherapeutic agent. In some embodiments, provided is a method to reduceor prevent injury by a toxic agent, and the intestinal tissue model iscontacted first with the candidate therapeutic agent and then with thetoxic agent.

In some embodiments, the intestinal tissue model has been cultured in acell culture medium prior to being contacted with the candidatetherapeutic agent and the toxic agent. In some embodiments, theintestinal tissue model has been cultured for at least 3 days in thecell culture medium.

Also provided is a method of assessing the effect of a potential toxicagent on intestinal function, the method comprising:

(a) contacting the agent with the three-dimensional, engineered,bioprinted, biological intestinal tissue model; and

(b) measuring the effect of the agent on the viability or functionalityof the intestinal tissue model cells.

In some embodiments, provided is a method to reverse or reduce injury bya toxic agent, and the intestinal tissue model is contacted first withthe toxic agent and then the potential toxic agent is removed.

Also provided is a method of assessing the kinetics of intestinalabsorption of an agent, the method comprising:

(a) contacting the agent with the three-dimensional, engineered,bioprinted, biological intestinal tissue model; and

(b) measuring the kinetics of absorption by the intestinal tissue model.

Also provided is method of predicting the effective dosing concentrationand dosing schedule of a candidate therapeutic agent, the methodcomprising:

(a) contacting varying concentrations or amounts of the agent with thethree-dimensional, engineered, bioprinted, biological intestinal tissuemodel; and

(b) measuring the effect of the agent on the viability or functionalityof the intestinal tissue model cells over time; and

(c) measuring the recovery of the intestinal tissue model cells overtime to determine the minimum timing between doses that provideefficacy.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises:

(d) removing the agent; and

(e) assessing whether the absence of the agent results in improvedviability or functionality of the intestinal tissue model.

Also provided is a method of making the intestinal tissue model, themethod comprising:

(a) depositing a layer comprising intestinal myofibroblasts onto abiocompatible surface; and

(b) depositing a layer of intestinal epithelial cells onto the layer ofintestinal myofibroblasts.

In some embodiments, at least one of the intestinal myofibroblasts andintestinal epithelial cells are deposited by bioprinting. In someembodiments, at least one of the intestinal myofibroblasts andintestinal epithelial cells are deposited by ink-jet printing. In someembodiments, at least one of the intestinal myofibroblasts andintestinal epithelial cells are deposited by extrusion. In someembodiments, at least one of the intestinal myofibroblasts andintestinal epithelial cells are deposited by microvalve printing (MSV).In some embodiments, at least one of the intestinal myofibroblasts andintestinal epithelial cells are deposited by inkjet printing. In someembodiments, at least one of the intestinal myofibroblasts andintestinal epithelial cells are deposited as part of a bio-ink. In someembodiments, the bio-ink comprises a hydrogel. In some embodiments, thehydrogel is collagen. In some embodiments, the method further comprisesdepositing immune cells. In some embodiments, the immune cells are Tcells, B cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, basophils, mast cells oreosinophils. In some embodiments, the immune cells are deposited as partof at least one of the intestinal tissue layers. In some embodiments,the immune cells are deposited in at least one of (a) the interstitiallayer, (b) the epithelial cell layer, (c) between the interstitial layerand the epithelial cell layer, (d) on top of the epithelial cell layer,and (e) below the interstitial cell layer. In some embodiments, theimmune cells are deposited as a layer or compartment. In someembodiments, the intestinal tissue model is deposited into the wells ofa microtiter plate. In some embodiments, the method further comprisesculturing the intestinal tissue model in cell culture media. In someembodiments, the intestinal tissue model is cultured for at least 3 daysin the cell culture media. In some embodiments, the biocompatiblesurface is in the well of a microtiter plate.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A-1B illustrate a histological comparison by H&E staining (FIG.1A) and Trichrome staining (FIG. 1B) of bioprinted intestinal tissueconstructs with myofibroblasts (IMF) tissue alone, 2D Caco-2/STC-1monolayers, and 3D tissues comprised of both layers (IMF+Caco-2/STC-1)at Day 7 (full culture time 11 days). Seeded alone, both IMF andepithelial cells (Caco-2/STC-1) form monolayers in culture over 11 days.When bioprinted together, the epithelial cells form secondary structuresand the IMF produce more collagen as seen in Trichrome staining (blue).

FIGS. 2A-2F are micrographs showing 3D printed tissues with Caco-2,demonstrating key architectural and tissue-specific features of theCaco-2 bioprinted 3D gut tissue. FIG. 2A shows bi-layered structure byH&E staining; FIG. 2B shows Trichrome staining of the 3D bioprintedtissues; FIG. 2C shows CK19 (epithelial) and Vimentin (fibroblast)co-staining; FIG. 2D shows CK19 and collagen IV co-staining; FIG. 2Eshows Villin staining identifying the brush border; FIG. 2F showsE-Cadherin staining on epithelial cells indicating the tight junctions.Basal lamina can be seen in Trichrome staining in FIG. 2B (arrow) andcollagen IV staining in FIG. 2D.

FIGS. 3A-3C are graphs showing bioprinted 3D Caco-2 tissues thicken overtime in culture and maintain key architectural features. FIG. 3A showshistology time course of 3D bioprinted tissues with IMF interstitiumsupporting Caco-2/STC-1 epithelial cells. FIG. 3B shows PCNA and CK19co-staining. PCNA staining shows that cells are proliferating,indicating that 3D Caco-2 tissues are highly viable in culture. FIG. 3Cshows the lack of mucin production by Alcian blue/PAS staining and Mucin2/CK19 co-staining, respectively.

FIG. 4 is a bar graph showing barrier function comparison of 2Dmonolayers and 3D bioprinted Caco-2 tissues measured by transendothelialelectrical resistance (TEER). TEER was used to evaluate the quality ofan intestinal epithelial barrier in 2D co-cultures and 3D tissuescontaining Caco-2/STC-1. Barrier function was followed as a time courseover 14-day culture period. The data demonstrates that barrier functionincreases over time in 3D tissues. The values for barrier function in 3Dtissues fall within the physiological range while the values for 2Dmonolayers may be artificially high. The normal small intestine TEERvalues are 50-100 Ω·cm² (Srinivasan B., Kolli A. R., Esch M. B., AbaciH. E., Shuler M. L., Hickman J. J. (2015)). TEER measurement techniquesfor in vitro barrier model systems. J Lab Autom 20(2), 107-126).

FIG. 5 is a bar graph showing permeability comparison of 2D monolayersand 3D bioprinted Caco-2 tissues measured by Lucifer Yellow. LuciferYellow was used to demonstrate barrier integrity over multiple timepoints in culture. Permeability was measured on 3D printed tissues andcompared to 2D epithelial monolayers of Caco-2/STC-1 cells andinterstitium alone. Both bioprinted 3D constructs and 2D monolayersexhibit low permeability within an acceptable range (<3% as later stagesof culture). The data suggests that 3D tissues have low enough passivepermeability for transport assays.

FIGS. 6A-6B are graphs showing TEER (FIG. 6A) and permeability (FIG. 6B)data averaged over multiple experiments.

FIG. 7 is a bar graph showing functional assay validation ofenteroendocrine cell GLP-1 secretion from bioprinted Caco-2 tissues.

FIG. 8 is a bar graph showing time course of gene expression comparisonof 2D monolayers and 3D bioprinted Caco-2 tissues. Sustained geneexpression is observed for panel of transporters/enzymes in 3D tissuesvs. 2D cultures. CYP3A4 expression is low compared to transporters.Trace amount (0.000004) is detected at day 14 in 3D tissues.

FIGS. 9A-9B are a bar graph and micrographs showing P-gp expressioncomparison of 2D monolayers and 3D bioprinted Caco-2 tissues.P-glycoprotein (P-gp) is an efflux transporter on the apical surface ofthe intestinal epithelium. Although P-gp gene expression is similar in2D monolayers and 3D bioprinted Caco-2 tissues at Day 7 (FIG. 9A),improved P-gp protein expression is observed by immunohistochemistrystaining in 3D bioprinted Caco-2 tissues, with enhanced expression inlate stages of culture (FIG. 9B).

FIG. 10 is a schematic showing the print surface, a layer of primaryintestinal myofibroblasts in collagen, and a top layer of primary humanintestinal epithelial cells.

FIGS. 11A-11D are histological graphs showing that bioprinted 3D primaryintestinal epithelial cell (IEC) tissues express key features of nativetissue. Histology panel at Day 9, 10, and 17 shows 3D primary humanintestinal epithelial cells (hIEC) tissues express key features ofnative tissue. Tissue exhibits correct architecture, epithelial cellsform tight junctions and polarize with expression patterning similar tonative tissue. FIG. 11A shows that 3D bi-layered tissues with correctarchitecture achieved using primary hIEC. Images at culture Day 9 revealdistinct epithelial layer with secondary structure formation. FIG. 11Bshows that epithelial cells in 3D bi-layered tissues form tightjunctions and polarize with expression patterning similar to nativetissue. FIG. 11C shows that bioprinted gut tissues with primary hIEC inthe epithelium demonstate correct architecture. Bi-layered tissues withcorrect expression pattern of IMF and hIEC markers maintained over17-day culture period. FIG. 11D shows that bioprinted gut tissues havesustained viability and resemble native intestine.

FIG. 12 is a panel of histological graphs showing that bioprinted 3Dprimary IEC tissues produce mucus. Mucin-2 staining can be seen intissues with primary intestinal epithelial cells but not in 3D Caco-2tissues. Staining demonstrates polarized epithelium with apical brushborder formation, goblet cells, and mucus production. Caco-2 tissues donot contain goblet cells or produce mucus.

FIGS. 13A-13B are bar graphs showing that bioprinted 3D primary IECtissues express key transporters and enzymes. Expression values of allgenes analyzed in this panel are induced as tissues mature. FIG. 13Ashows that, in 3D tissues with primary human intestinal epithelia cellscultured for 9 days, all transporters and enzymes analyzed are inducedto levels higher than primary IEC as 3D tissues mature. P-gp exhibitsthe highest baseline expression in primary IEC while P-gp and CYP3A4 arethe highest expressed genes in 3D tissues at Day 9. FIG. 13B are bargraphs showing gene expression as a ratio to CK19 expression (e.g.,2^(−(ΔΔCt))PGP/2^(−(ΔΔCt))CK19) to remove any differences in total cellnumber. Relative fold change comparing expression at Day 9 to Day 0shows induction in all genes as 3D tissues mature. Bioprinting approachcreates reproducible tissues with low construct variability (n=3) pertime point.

FIG. 14 is a bar graph showing that transporter and metabolic geneexpression in 3D tissues with primary IEC is higher compared to 3DCaco-2 tissues. Gene expression of 3D Caco-2 tissues is compared atmultiple time points to primary tissue at Day 9. Overall transportergene expression in primary IEC tissue is much higher than 3D Caco-2tissues with the exception of MRP3. Expression of metabolic enzymeCYP3A4 is very high in primary tissue and absent in 3D Caco-2 tissues.

FIG. 15 is a panel of bar graphs showing that gut epitheliumdifferentiates over time. Tissues fabricated with primary intestinalepithelial cells express key specialized cell types found in nativeintestine. Enteroendocrine cell marker is CHGA, goblet cell marker isMUC2. An increase in CHGA and MUC2 and a decrease in LGR5 are observed,suggesting that epithelial cells are differentiating. Values arerepresented as a ratio to CK19 to visualize changes specific to theepithelial cell population in tissues.

FIGS. 16A-16B are micrographs showing that 3D tissues printed with 100%STC-1 cells in the epithelial layer with no primary intestinalepithelial cells. Tissues demonstrate bi-layered architecture. MouseSTC-1 cells lack epithelial tight junctions and form invasive aggregatesthat may disrupt surrounding epithelium and increase barrier functionvariability. SV40 is used as a marker for STC-1 cells based on thetransgenic mouse strain which this cell line was derived from. FIG. 16Ashows modeling enteroendocrine function through incorporation of themouse STC-1 cell line to bioprinted 3D gut tissues. Mouse intestinalcell line that secretes gut hormones CCK, GLP-1, GLP-2, GIP, and PYY arederived from tumors of double transgenic mice for SV40 large T antigenand polyoma virus small T antigen. Mouse STC-1 cell line is added to 3Dtissue epithelium to model gut enteroendocrine function. STC-1 cells donot behave like epithelial cells. STC-1 cells alone form a thick layer,lack epithelial markers and tight junction formation. FIG. 16B showsthat when incorporated with primary intestinal cells, STC-1 cells forminvasive aggregates. STC-1 cells may disrupt surrounding epithelium.

FIGS. 17A-17B are histological micrographs showing tissues incorporatingSTC-1 cells with primary intestinal epithelial cells into the tissueepithelium. Tissues form correct bi-layered architecture, appear similarto native tissue, and produce mucus. FIG. 17A shows that, despiteunusual behavior, tissues with STC-1 cells maintain correct architectureand expression pattering. FIG. 17B shows that tissues with STC-1 cellsalso develop a mucosal barrier. Arrows indicate the apical brush borderand asterisk (*) indicates goblet cells and mucus.

FIGS. 18A-18B are bar graphs showing GLP-1 secretion in 3D bioprintedtissues fabricated with primary intestinal epithelial cells. Tissues aremeasured for basal GLP-1 secretion after 2 hour starvation. Proteincontent is measured to normalize GLP-1 levels (FIG. 18A). Baseline GLP-1secretion is enhanced by incorporation of mouse enteroendocrine cellline STC-1 and further enhanced by stimulation by a mixture of 50 mMForskolin+10 uM IBMX+10 mM glucose post starvation (FIG. 18B). GLP-1 canbe detected and induced in tissues without STC-1 cells suggestingenteroendocrine cells are present and functional in hIEC isolates.

FIGS. 19A-19C are bar graphs demonstrating barrier function in 3Dtissues fabricated with primary intestinal epithelial cells. TEER andLucifer yellow permeability are measured 10 days post epithelialseeding. Barrier function requires primary intestinal epithelial cells(hIEC). Tissues with only myofibroblasts (IMF) and STC-1 cells do notdemonstrate barrier function.

FIGS. 20A-20E are graphs showing Taqman array card analysis. FIGS.20A-20B show that key transporters are present and induced over time inculture as tissues mature. Transporters regulating drug disposition(P-gp and BCRP) and the key bile acid transporter ASBT are highlyexpressed and increase over time. The data shows a clear advantage of 3DhIEC tissues over tissues with gold standard Caco-2 (FIG. 20B).Transporters regulating drug disposition (P-gp and BCRP) and the keybile acid transporter ASBT are highly expressed. Apical effluxtransporter BCRP and influx transporter PEPT1 are highly upregulatedover time (FIG. 20C). FIG. 20C shows that key metabolic enzymes areinduced over time. Highly expressed CES2 is a major enzyme in theintestine and responsible for metabolism of various xenobiotics. MajorPhase I cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP3A4 is highly induced (150×) withsustained expression over time. CYP3A4 expression in primary IECs issuperior to Caco-2 cells (Caco-2 cells do not express CYP3A4). MajorPhase II enzyme UGT1A1 is also highly expressed and induced over time.FIG. 20D shows gene expression of lipid biology. Transporters for fattyacids and cholesterol are expressed at low levels except NPC1L1 which isresponsible for free cholesterol uptake. Enzymes involved in fatprocessing are highly expressed and increase from Day 0 then maintain toDay 17. FIG. 20E shows that key endocrine markers are present andinduced as tissues mature. Key secreted peptides CCK, GCG, GIP, PYY, andSST are expressed and increase with time. These markers are also presentin tissues that lack STC-1 cells, suggesting that enteroendocrine cellsare present in hIEC tissues.

FIGS. 21A-21B show that 3D gut tissues have sustained CYP3A4 functionthat can be modulated by drugs. CYP3A4 activity is specific to primaryintestinal epithelial cells. Constructs maintain functional CYP3A4activity for >2 weeks in culture (FIG. 21A). Significant CYP3A4 activitycan be induced with Rifampicin and inhibited with Ketoconazole aspredicted (FIG. 21B).

FIGS. 22A-22I show the architecture of a 3D bioprinted intestinaltissue. FIG. 22A show a bi-layered architecture is achieved bybioprinting an interstitial layer containing adult human intestinalmyofibroblasts (IMF) followed by adult human intestinal epithelial cells(hIEC). FIGS. 22B-22C show that the vimentin expressing interstitialcells and CK19 expressing epithelial compartments remain separate over17 days in culture. FIGS. 22D-22E show epithelial cells stained fortight junction E-Cadherin (FIG. 22D) and apical villin (FIG. 22E). FIGS.22F-22G show mucus production from goblet cells is observed throughoutculture. FIGS. 22H-22I show lysozyme stained Paneth cells (FIG. 22H) andchromogranin expressing enteroendocrine cells (FIG. 22I) are alsopresent.

FIGS. 23A-23C show gene expression comparisons of native intestine, 3Dbioprinted intestinal tissue, and Caco-2 monolayers. FIG. 23A showsgeneral intestinal markers for intestinal epithelial lineage (LGR5,CDX2) and tight junctions are similar among the three groups. Epithelialsubtype markers are highest for native and 3D bioprinted intestinaltissue. Drug inducible transcription factors VDR, NR1I2 (PXR), and NR1I3(CAR) are similar for normal intestinal tissue function and 3Dintestinal tissue. FIG. 23B shows native and 3D bioprinted intestinaltissue express all metabolic enzymes analyzed, including phase Icytochrome P450s, the majority of which Caco-2 cells lack. Genesregulating fatty acid metabolism DGAT1, MOGAT1, and MTTP are nearequivalent in normal intestinal tissue function and 3D bioprintedintestinal tissue. FIG. 23C shows transporters are expressed by allthree groups, with variation in the level. For efflux transporters, 3Dbioprinted intestinal tissue is most similar to normal intestine tissuefunction while Caco-2 under express ABCB1 (P-gp) and ABCG2 (BCRP) whileoverexpressing ABCC2 (MRP2) and ABCC3 (MRP3). Uptake transportersSLC15A1 (PEPT1) and SLCO2B1 (OATP2B1) are similarly expressed by nativeand 3D bioprinted intestinal tissue, not by Caco-2 monolayers. Bile acidtransporters vary for all three groups.

FIGS. 24A-24B show barrier function of 3D bioprinted intestinal tissue.FIG. 24A shows trans-epithelial electrical resistance (TEER) wasmeasured for 3D bioprinted intestinal tissue from day 6 to 21, showingincrease early in culture, with maintenance of barrier function withinphysiological levels (dotted lines) after day 10 (n=24). Caco-2monolayer at day 21 has TEER above physiological values. FIG. 24B showspermeability of test compounds was measured in the apical to basaldirection, and shows distinction between low (Lucifer yellow,mitoxantrone), moderate (digoxin), and high (propranolol) permeabilitycompounds.

FIGS. 25A-25D show P-gp and BCRP transporter function in 3D bioprintedintestinal tissue. FIGS. 25A-25B show P-gp and BCRP are apicallylocalized in 3D bioprinted intestinal tissue, similar to normalintestine tissue function. Expression in Caco-2 monolayers in patchy atthe apical surface. FIG. 25C shows P-gp substrate digoxin had greaterpermeability in the B to A direction with efflux ratio of 2.1. In thepresence of P-gp inhibitor Zosuquidar, efflux ratio of digoxin wasreduced to 1.2. FIG. 25D show BCRP/P-gp substrate topotecan had effluxratio of 8.8 under control conditions. BCRP inhibition by Ko143 reducedB to A transport and efflux ratio decreased to 3.6. Dual inhibition ofP-gp and BCRP resulted in ablation of transport with efflux ratio of1.4. Level of significance: ****P<0.0001 by two-way ANOVA.

FIGS. 26A-26E show cytochrome P450 metabolism in 3D bioprintedintestinal tissue. FIG. 26A shows CYP2C9 basal activity was validated bya luciferin activity assay and was reduced by inhibitor sulfaphenazole.FIGS. 26B-26C show that CYP3A4 activity was shown by luciferin activityassay (FIG. 26B) and midazolam hydroxylation (FIG. 26C), both of whichwere inhibited by ketoconazole. FIG. 26D shows that CYP3A4 induction viarifampicin treatment was detected by increased midazolam metabolism.FIG. 26E shows that rifampicin treatment increased gene expression ofPXR regulated CYPs, ABCB1 (P-gp), and UGT1A1 but not control genes CK19and ECAD. Level of significance: ****P<0.0001, ***P<0.001, **P<0.01 bytwo-way ANOVA.

FIGS. 27A-27D show indomethacin toxicity in 3D bioprinted intestinaltissue. FIG. 27A shows TEER measurements of tissues following 24 hourincubation with vehicle or varying doses of indomethacin (Indo), showdose response decrease in TEER with increasing indomethacin. FIG. 27Bshows LDH activity increased with increasing indomethacin dose,suggesting increased cytotoxicity. FIG. 27C shows prostaglandin E₂synthesis decreased to similar levels for all indomethacin doses tested,confirming drug activity. FIG. 27D shows histology of indomethacintreated tissues shows disruption of the epithelium and distorted nuclearstaining at higher doses of indomethacin, accompanied by a reduction inE-Cadherin, a marker of barrier function. Level of significance:****P<0.0001 by one-way ANOVA.

FIGS. 28A-28C show TNFα induced toxicity in 3D bioprinted intestinaltissue. FIG. 28A shows that 3D bioprinted tissues treated with TNFα for24 hours showed increased epithelial disorganization compared tocontrols. FIG. 28B shows increased LDH activity correlated with changesin cell morphology following TNFα treatment. FIG. 28 c shows a subset ofgenes related to inflammation, COX2, IL8, and TNFα were upregulated inresponse to TNFα treatment. Level of significance: ***P<0.001 by t-testin b; **P<0.01, ****P<0.0001 by two-way ANOVA in c.

FIG. 29 shows Caco-2 histology. Day 21 monolayers of Caco-2 cells werestained for general and specialized cell subtype epithelial markers.Caco-2 express CK19, E-Cadherin, and villin across the monolayer. Nostaining was observed for chromogranin, lysozyme, or mucin-2.

FIG. 30 shows BCRP efflux of Mitoxantrone. Low permeability A to B ofmitoxantrone, a BCRP substrate, was observed with much higherpermeability in the B to A direction, efflux ratio=190. In the presenceof BCRP inhibitor Ko143, Mitoxantrone permeability B to A decreased andefflux ratio reduced to 145. Note: samples for A to B were near or belowlimit of detection. (n=4) Level of significance: ***P<0.001 by two-wayANOVA.

FIG. 31 shows MRP2 and MRP3 transporter expression. Native intestine, 3Dbioprinted intestinal tissue, and Caco-2 monolayers were compared forexpression of MRP2 (ABCC2) and MRP3 (ABCC3). Similar levels of MRPstaining were observed between normal intestine tissue and 3D bioprintedintestinal tissue with higher levels seen in Caco-2 monolayers.

FIG. 32 shows inter-individual variability in midazolam metabolism of 3Dbioprinted intestine tissues.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Certain Definitions

Unless otherwise defined, all technical terms used herein have the samemeaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art towhich this invention belongs. As used in this specification and theappended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include pluralreferences unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Any referenceto “or” herein is intended to encompass “and/or” unless otherwisestated.

As used herein, “about” means ±10% of the recited value. For example,about 10 includes 9-11.

As used herein, “array” means a scientific tool including an associationof multiple elements spatially arranged to allow a plurality of tests tobe performed on a sample, one or more tests to be performed on aplurality of samples, or both. In some embodiments, a plurality of theintestinal tissue models are configured to form an array. In someembodiments, the arrays are adapted for, or compatible with, screeningmethods and devices, including those associated with medium- orhigh-throughput screening. In further embodiments, an array allows aplurality of tests to be performed simultaneously. In furtherembodiments, an array allows a plurality of samples to be testedsimultaneously. In some embodiments, the arrays are cellularmicroarrays. In further embodiments, a cellular microarray is alaboratory tool that allows for the multiplex interrogation of livingcells on the surface of a solid support. In other embodiments, thearrays are tissue microarrays. In further embodiments, tissuemicroarrays include a plurality of separate tissues or tissue samplesassembled in an array to allow the performance of multiple biochemical,metabolic, molecular, or histological analyses. In some embodiments, thearray is present in the wells of a microtiter plate. Microtiter placesare commercially available from Sigma Aldrich and other suppliers andare available in 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, 384 and 1546 sample well formatsarranged in a rectangular matrix, although higher numbers of wells arepossible.

As used herein, “assay” means a procedure for testing or measuring thepresence or activity of a substance (e.g., a chemical, molecule,biochemical, protein, peptide, hormone, or drug, etc.) in an organic orbiologic sample (e.g., cell aggregate, tissue, organ, organism, etc.).

As used herein, “basal lamina” means a layer comprising collagen betweenthe intestinal interstitial tissue layer and the epithelial cell layer.Other layers may also be present in the intestinal tissue model.

As used herein, “biocompatible membrane” means a membrane that is nottoxic to tissue.

As used herein, “bio-ink” means a liquid, semi-solid, or solidcomposition for use in bioprinting. In some embodiments, bio-inkcomprises cell solutions, cell aggregates, cell-comprising gels,multicellular bodies, or tissues. In some embodiments, the bio-inkadditionally comprises non-cellular materials that provide specificbiomechanical properties that enable bioprinting. In some embodiments,the bio-ink comprises an extrusion compound. In some cases, theextrusion compound is engineered to be removed after the bioprintingprocess. In other embodiments, at least some portion of the extrusioncompound remains entrained with the cells post-printing and is notremoved.

As used herein, “bioprinting” means utilizing three-dimensional, precisedeposition of cells (e.g., cell solutions, cell-containing gels, cellsuspensions, cell concentrations, multicellular aggregates,multicellular bodies, etc.) via methodology that is compatible with anautomated or semi-automated, computer-aided, three-dimensionalprototyping device (e.g., a bioprinter). Suitable bioprinters includethe Novogen Bioprinter® from Organovo, Inc. (San Diego, Calif.) andthose described in U.S. Pat. No. 9,149,952 and U.S. Publ Appl. Nos.2015/0093932, 2015/0004273, and 2015/0037445.

Bioprinting may be carried out by ink-jet printing (see, U.S. Pat. No.7,051,654) and/or by extrusion printing (see, U.S. Pat. Nos. 9,149,952,8,931,880, 9,227,339, 8,143,055, 8,728,807, and 9,315,043, and U.S.Published Appl. Nos. 2013/0190210, 2013/0164339, 2015/0282885,2016/0040132, 2016/0097039, and 2016/0122723). In another embodiment,bioprinting may be carried out by microvalve printing, e.g., with amicrofluidic device comprising a microvalve. See, for example, Beebe, D.J., Moore, J. S., Bauer, J. M., Yu, Q., Liu, R. H., Devadoss, C., Jo,B., 2000, “Functional hydrogel structures for autonomous flow controlinside microfluidic channels”, Nature 404, 588-590; and U.S. Pat. No.6,663,821.

As used herein, “layer” means an association of cells in X and Y planesthat is one or multiple cells thick. In some embodiments, the intestinaltissue model described herein includes at least two layers. In otherembodiments, the intestinal tissue model described herein include amultiple of the two layers. In various embodiments, a layer forms acontiguous, substantially contiguous, or non-contiguous sheet of cells.In some embodiments, each layer of intestinal tissue model describedherein comprises multiple cells in the X, Y, and Z axes.

As used herein, “polarized” means spatially asymmetric.

As used herein, “scaffold” refers to synthetic scaffolds such as polymerscaffolds and porous hydrogels, non-synthetic scaffolds such aspre-formed extracellular matrix layers, dead cell layers, anddecellularized tissues, and any other type of pre-formed scaffold thatis integral to the physical structure of the engineered tissue and notable to be removed from the tissue without damage/destruction of saidtissue. In further embodiments, decellularized tissue scaffolds includedecellularized native tissues or decellularized cellular materialgenerated by cultured cells in any manner; for example, cell layers thatare allowed to die or are decellularized, leaving behind theextracellular matrix (ECM) they produced while living. The term“scaffoldless,” therefore, is intended to imply that pre-formed scaffoldis not an integral part of the engineered tissue at the time of use,either having been removed or remaining as an inert component of theengineered tissue. “Scaffoldless” is used interchangeably with“scaffold-free” and “free of preformed scaffold.”

As used herein a “subject” is an organism of any mammalian speciesincluding but not limited to humans, primates, apes, monkey, dogs, cats,mice, rats, rabbits, pigs, horses and others. A subject can be anymammalian species alive or dead. Subject includes recently deceasedsubjects or biopsy samples taken from a living subject.

A “non-human animal” may be any species other than human. In oneembodiment, a non-human animal is a mammal. In another embodiment, anon-human animal is a vertebrate. In another embodiment, a non-humananimal is selected from the group consisting of murine, ovine, canine,bovine, porcine and non-human primates.

As used herein “therapeutic substance” means any molecule, biologic,compound or composition that is approved to treat a disease, underinvestigation to treat a disease, or that elicits a biological responsesuch as changes in DNA, RNA, peptide, polypeptide or protein.

As used herein, “tissue” means an aggregate of cells.

As used herein “viable” means that at least 50% of the cells are alive.In other embodiments, viable cells are at least 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%,97% or more of cells in a bio-ink or tissue layer as determined by atleast one test of viability. Tests for viability are known in the art,and include the alamarBlue™ Assay performed according to themanufacturer's protocol (Thermo Fisher, Carlsbad, Calif.).

Composition of the Intestinal Tissue Model

In some embodiments, the cells within the tissue model are organizedspatially to recapitulate the laminar architecture of intestinal tissue;a polarized epithelium is present on top of a layer of interstitialtissue comprising intestinal myofibroblasts. In some embodiments, theintestinal tissue model further comprises a brush border on theepithelial cells.

In particular, non-limiting embodiments, the engineered intestinaltissues described herein comprise two major parts: 1) a interstitiallayer comprising myofibroblasts; and 2) a polarized epithelial layercomprising epithelial cells. The layers may be deposited any knownmethod of bioprinting including by ink-spray, extrusion, microvalveprinting (MSV), laser-based bioprinting, and manual placement of thecells. In one embodiment, the cells are deposited using the Novogen MMXBioprinter in such a way that the epithelial layer is apical to themyofibroblast layer. In another embodiment, structures are created byspatially-controlled deposition of cells mixed with a thermo-responsivehydrogel that degrades over time (Novogel® 2.0) and/or with depositionof aerosolized cellular materials by compressed gas propulsion (inkjetspray). In this embodiment, the two layers together model the wall of anintestinal tissue. This configuration is critical for modeling in vivotissues and predicting native tissue responses. Response of theepithelial layer is predictive of native tissue response to drugs,chemicals, nutrients or biological agents, and may provide informationrelative to toxicity, efficacy, absorption, inflammation, orhomeostasis.

In a particular embodiment, a myofibroblast layer is bioprinted, usingcontinuous deposition techniques. In this embodiment, an epitheliallayer is bioprinted, using ink-jet, microvalve, or extrusion depositiontechniques onto the myofibroblast layer. A substantially contiguouslayer of epithelium is consistent with in vivo tissues and is criticalto replicate a physiologically relevant architecture. Ink-jet andmicrovalve deposition techniques provide the ability to deposit one ormore thin layers of epithelial cells onto the potentially irregularsurface of the myofibroblast layer. In such embodiments, ink-jet ormicrovalve deposition of the epithelial layer is optionally performedimmediately after bioprinting of the myofibroblast layer or after themyofibroblast layer has been allowed to mature.

In some embodiments, the cells are bioprinted. In further embodiments,the bioprinted cells are cohered to form the engineered intestinaltissue models. In still further embodiments, the engineered intestinaltissue models are free or substantially free of pre-formed scaffold atthe time of fabrication or the time of use. In some cases, bioprintingallows fabrication of tissues that mimic the appropriate cellularity ofnative tissue.

In some embodiments, the three-dimensional, engineered intestinal tissuemodels described herein are distinguished from tissues fabricated byprior technologies by virtue of the fact that they arethree-dimensional, free of pre-formed scaffolds, consist essentially ofcells, and/or have a high cell density (e.g., greater than 30% cellular,greater than 40% cellular, greater than 50% cellular, greater than 60%cellular, greater than 70% cellular, greater than 80% cellular, greaterthan 90% cellular, or greater than 95% cellular).

In some embodiments, the three-dimensional, engineered intestinal tissuemodels described herein are distinguished from native (e.g.,non-engineered) tissues by virtue of the fact that they arenon-innervated (e.g., substantially free of nervous tissue),substantially free of mature vasculature, and/or substantially free ofblood components. For example, in various embodiments, thethree-dimensional, engineered intestinal tissue models are free ofplasma, red blood cells, platelets, and the like and/orendogenously-generated plasma, red blood cells, platelets, and the like.

In some embodiments, the model is not tubular in shape like a naturallyoccurring intestinal tissue, but is planar or sheet-like, thisadvantageously allows for in vitro assays and analysis. In someembodiments, the epithelial cells are not of human origin. In certainembodiments, the engineered intestinal tissue model lacksundifferentiated cells. In certain embodiments, the engineeredintestinal tissue model lacks undifferentiated intestinal cells. In someembodiments, the three-dimensional, engineered intestinal tissue modelsdescribed herein are distinguished from native intestinal tissue tissuesin that they are substantially planar. In certain embodiments, thethree-dimensional, engineered intestinal tissue models described hereinpossess functional improvements over native intestinal tissues; oneexample is high viability after a sustained amount of time in culture upfor 14 days or more in culture. In some embodiments, the cells used inthe intestinal tissue model are transformed or immortalized. In someembodiments, the cells used in the intestinal tissue model aretransgenic and contain protein fusions with fluorescent proteins, likeenhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP), green fluorescent protein(GFP), red fluorescent protein (RFP), yellow fluorescent protein (YFP),or cyan fluorescent protein (CFP). In some embodiments, the cells usedin the intestinal tissue model are transgenic and contain reporterconstructs with fluorescent proteins; like EGFP, GFP, RFP, YFP, GFP; orluminescent proteins like firefly or renilla luciferase. In certainembodiments, any of the cells contain a deletion or insertion of 1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 genes or more. In some embodiments, the 3Dintestinal tissue models are chimeras, wherein at least one cell is froma different mammalian species than any other cell of the 3D intestinaltissue model. In some embodiments, the 3D intestinal tissue models arechimeras, wherein at least one cell is form a different human donor thanany other cell of the 3D intestinal tissue model. In another embodiment,the intestinal tissue models comprise cells derived from tumors and/orderived from induced pluripotent cells (iPSCs) and/or embryonic stemcells. Examples of tumor cells that may be in the intestinal tissuemodels include colorectal tumor cells.

There are key differences between the present intestinal tissue modelsand current in vitro models. The Caco-2 cell line is the mostestablished cell model used to mimic passive transport and predictintestinal absorption and is considered the gold standard to model theintestinal barrier in vitro. Limitations of the Caco-2 model includelack of P-450 metabolizing enzyme activity (including key intestinalmetabolic enzyme CYP3A4), lack of mucus production thus preventingaccurate modeling of the mucosal barrier, variation with passage number,and inconsistencies between clones of the cell line (Table 1). Other 2Dmodels may include primary intestinal epithelial cells which, along withcell lines, may have limited intestinal epithelial function due in partto their isolation from either other specialized epithelial cell typesor from the other supportive cell types present in the intestinal wall.In addition, testing in isolated epithelial monocultures prevents theability to see effects on the interstitial and immune cells present innative tissue.

TABLE 1 Key differences demonstrating the superiority of 3D tissue modelcompared to traditional 2D Caco-2 monolayer model. 2D Caco-2 3D TissueFeature monolayer Model Tissue-like cell density yes Yes Epithelialtight junction formation yes Yes Barrier Function yes yes (artificially(physiological high) levels) Epithelial polarization yes yes Transporterexpression yes yes (limited) (high) Mucus production no Yes Presence ofgoblet cells no Yes Presence of enteroendocrine cells no Yes Presence ofmucosal interstitial cells no Yes Presence of immune cells no Yes GLP-1secretion no Yes Metabolic enzyme (CYP3A4) No Yes expression Metabolicenzyme (CYP3A4) activity No Yes

More complex 3D structures including intestinal segments and gutorganoids derived from whole tissue or biopsies have limitedavailability when derived from human tissue, have limited viablelifespan in vitro, and may lack in vivo organ physiology. Notably, thesetissues are not laminar in structure and the inward orientation ofepithelia in intestinal organoids makes the apical surface relativelyinaccessible for direct stimulation or for assessing absorption. The 3Dbioprinted intestinal tissues provide advantages over existing in vitroassay systems by incorporating multiple cell types including anintestinal epithelial cell layer on top of a layer of intestinalinterstitial tissue comprising myofibroblast cells and, optionally,immune cells, smooth muscle cells, endothelial cells, or neurons.Furthermore, the model demonstrates tissue-like 3D architecture andfunctionality over an extended time in culture, thus enabling morechronic studies with clinically relevant endpoints. By including humanprimary cells, the intestinal tissue model can serve as an importantadjunct, or in some cases, replacement of animal studies in whichspecies differences in function hamper interpretations.

There are key differences between the tissue constructs and nativetissues. Bioprinted tissue constructs differ from native gut whichcomprises centrally-innervated nervous and vascular tissue. Bioprintedtissue constructs differ from other 3D engineered methods that mayemploy scaffolds as use of scaffolds prevent achievement of tissue-likedensity and 3D dimensions, and those systems have limited spatialorganization. Bioprinted tissue constructs differ from ex vivo-culturedtissue explants/slices/intestinal segments with regard to incorporationof blood, mature perfusable vascular components, and appendages. Tissueexplants have the advantage of containing all resident cell types of themucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa as well as appendages;however, there are limited options for experimental manipulation of hostgenetics as well as restricted availability of such tissue samples. Inaddition, ex vivo tissue slices are only viable <14 days in culture andbioprinted tissue constructs can be maintained for greater than 14 days.

TABLE 2 Comparison of 2D, 3D bioprinted, and in vivo tissues 3D Ex In 2DCell- Vivo Vivo 3D Epithelial Seeded Tissue Native Bioprinted MonolayerScaffolds Slices Tissues Tissues Tissue-like yes limited yes yes yescell density True 3D > 250 um no limited yes yes yes in X, Y, Z axesMultiple no yes yes yes yes tissue-specific cell types Spatially nolimited yes yes yes controlled cell compartments Longterm no yes no yesyes (>14 days) viability Incorporates no no yes yes no mature neuraland/or vascular systemsCellular Inputs

In some embodiments, the engineered tissues, arrays, and methodsdescribed herein include a plurality of cell types. In some embodiments,the intestinal tissue models comprise a layer of mammalian interstitialtissue comprising myofibroblasts and a layer of mammalian epithelialcells. In various embodiments, suitable epithelial cells are derivedfrom human intestine (see, e.g., PLoS ONE 6.11:e26890 (2011), PMC. Web28 Sep. 2016, or Sato et al., Nature 459:262-5 (2009)), or from directeddifferentiation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) or humanembryonic stem cells (hES).

In some embodiments, the myofibroblasts are intestinal tissuemyofibroblasts. In various embodiments, the intestinal tissuemyofibroblasts are derived from primary cells isolated from humanintestine. In some embodiments, the myofibroblasts are dermal orvascular in origin. In some embodiments, one or more of the cellularcomponents are derived from a non-human mammal. In other embodiments,one or more of the cellular components are derived from a human. Inother embodiments, the myofibroblasts are derived from normal tissue,diseased tissue or tumor tissue (e.g., colorectal tumor tissue).

Intestinal epithelial cells can be isolated from various regions of thegut including the duodenum, jejunum, ileum, and colon to more accuratelymimic function of specific intestinal regions. Additional cell types canbe incorporated into the intestinal constructs to provide additionalfunctional features. Cell types can include alternative human intestinalcell lines (e.g. HT-29, HT29-18N2, and/or HuTu80 cell lines). Such celllines may be considered for high throughput applications including 96well platforms. In one embodiment, these cell lines are added as anepithelial layer in place of or in combination with primary intestinalepithelial cells.

In one embodiment, an immune component is incorporated into theintestinal tissue model by adding primary myeloid cells (e.g. monocytes,macrophages, and/or dendritic cells) and/or lymphoid cells/white bloodcells (e.g. PBMC, neutrophils, T-cells, and/or B-cells, etc.). Suchintestinal tissue model can be used to model disease phenotypes (IBD,colitis, Crohn's) and inflammation, as well as immune-oncology models.Immune cells can be incorporated into the myofibroblast interstitiallayer by mixing directly with the myofibroblast bioink, by addition as amonolayer to the printing surface followed by printing of interstitialtissue on top, by addition as a printed layer or compartment adjacent toor embedded within the interstitial layer, and/or added as a mixturewithin the epithelium. In one embodiment, lymphoid cells are bioprintedas a compartmentalized aggregate just below the epithelial layer tomimic the native intestinal physiology of a Peyer's patch. In anotherembodiment, specialized intestinal epithelial cells (e.g.enteroendocrine, goblet, M, and/or Paneth cells) are incorporated intothe epithelium to model specific intestinal functions. In anotherembodiment, enteroendocrine cells are added or generated from stem cellsto model endocrine functions (e.g. GLP-1, PYY, CCK, and/or SST peptidesecretion). In another embodiment, goblet cells are added to modelmucosal barrier function for absorption, distribution, metabolism andexcretion (ADME) and/or toxicology testing and/or study of microbiomeinteractions. In another embodiment, M cells and Paneth cells are addedto modulate immune function. In another embodiment, primary humanendothelial cells (e.g. HUVEC) are added to model the intestinemicrovasculature and incorporated into the interstitial layer or as anadditional submucosal layer. In another embodiment, the intestinaltissue model comprises additional cells such as lymphatic endothelialcells and/or smooth muscle cells either in one or both layers ofinterstitial tissue and epithelial cells or as one or more separatelayers. In another embodiment, neuronal cells are incorporated into asubmucosal layer to model the enteric nervous system. Specialized cellsmay be derived from directed differentiation of stem cell populationswithin primary isolates or from iPS cells. Furthermore, primary cells oriPS cells can be derived from diseased donors to model intestinaldiseases (e.g. addressing the genetic basis of IBD, colitis, and Crohn'sdisease).

In another embodiment, the intestinal tissue model may comprise multiplecompartments across the x-y axis, e.g., wherein one compartmentcomprises normal tissue and an adjacent compartment comprises tissuewith diseased cells, e.g., cells obtained from an individual having anintestinal disease or disorder. Such multi-compartment intestinal tissueconstructions allows for the testing of candidate therapeutic treatmentsagainst normal and diseased tissue in the same construct that may be ina single tissue well.

In another embodiment, the intestinal tissue model is laminar, butcontains secondary structures that mimic villi and/or crypts. In otherembodiments, the intestinal tissue model comprises lumen-like structuresor tubes that do not contain tissue but may contain cell culture media.

In another embodiment, the intestinal tissue model may comprisetumor(s), tumor fragment(s), tumor cells or immortalized cells in one ormore layers or compartments of the intestinal tissue model. Such atissue construct allows the testing of candidate therapeutic treatmentson the tumor or cells as well as the study of tumor cell invasion andmetastasis. Examples of tumor and tumor cells include intestinaladenocarcinoma cells, intestinal sarcoma cells, gastrointestinal stromalcells, carcinoid cancer cells, and intestinal lymphoma cells. In someembodiments, the tumor and tumor cells include but are not limited toCaco-2, HT-29, HT29-18N2, HuTu80 and STC-1 cells.

In another embodiment, the intestinal tissue model comprising tumorcells may be used as a diseased tissue model that may be implanted in anon-human animal as an in vivo model of cancer. In one embodiment, thetumor cells are colorectal cells. In another embodiment, the non-humananimal is selected from the group consisting of may be any speciesincluding but not limited to murine, ovine, canine, bovine, porcine andany non-human primates. In a particular embodiment, the non-human animalis a rodent. In another particular embodiment, the non-human animal isan immunodeficient rodent. In a more specific embodiment, the animal isa NOD SCID gamma mouse. The intestinal tissue model may be implanted inany part of the non-human animal. In one embodiment, the intestinaltissue model is implanted in the peritoneum of the non-human animal.

Expression of markers associated with special cell types can include butare not limited to: myeloid cell markers (CD14, CD68, CD206), lymphoidcell markers (CD4, CD8, CD19, CD15), enteroendocrine markers (CHGA,GLP-1, PYY, CCK), goblet cell markers (MUC2), vascular markers (CD31),and stem cell markers in primary isolates (LGR5).

In some embodiments, the layer of interstitial tissue comprisingmyofibroblasts is substantially a monolayer. In some embodiments, thelayer of interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts comprises amonolayer over 95% of its surface area. In some embodiments, the layerof interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts comprises a monolayerover 90% of its surface area. In some embodiments, the layer ofinterstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts comprises a monolayer over80% of its surface area. In some embodiments, the layer of interstitialtissue comprising myofibroblasts is greater than 1 cell thick. In someembodiments, the layer of interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblastsis greater than 2 cells thick. In some embodiments, the layer ofinterstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts is greater than 3 cellsthick. In some embodiments, the layer of interstitial tissue comprisingmyofibroblasts is greater than 4 cells thick. In some embodiments, thelayer of interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts is greater than 5cells thick. In some embodiments, the layer of interstitial tissuecomprising myofibroblasts is greater than 10 cells thick. In someembodiments, the layer of interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblastsis greater than 20 cells thick. In some embodiments, the layer ofinterstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts is greater than 50 cellsthick. In some embodiments, the layer of interstitial tissue comprisingmyofibroblasts is greater than 100 cells thick. In some embodiments, thelayer of interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts is 2-100 cellsthick. In some embodiments, the layer of interstitial tissue comprisingmyofibroblasts is greater than 20 μm thick. In some embodiments, thelayer of interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts is greater than30 um thick. In some embodiments, the layer of interstitial tissuecomprising myofibroblasts is greater than 40 μm thick. In someembodiments, the layer of interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblastsis greater than 50 μm thick. In some embodiments, the layer ofinterstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts is greater than 100 μmthick. In some embodiments, the layer of interstitial tissue comprisingmyofibroblasts is greater than 200 μm thick. In some embodiments, thelayer of interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts is greater than500 μm thick. In some embodiments, the layer of interstitial tissuecomprising myofibroblasts is greater than 600 μm thick. In someembodiments, the layer of interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblastsis greater than 1000 μm thick. In some embodiments, the layer ofinterstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts is 20 μm-1000 μm thick. Insome embodiments, the layer of interstitial tissue comprisingmyofibroblasts is less than 20 μm thick. In some embodiments, the layerof interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts is less than 30 μmthick. In some embodiments, the layer of interstitial tissue comprisingmyofibroblasts is less than 40 μm thick. In some embodiments, the layerof interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts is less than 50 μmthick. In some embodiments, the layer of interstitial tissue comprisingmyofibroblasts is less than 100 μm thick. In some embodiments, the layerof interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts is less than 200 μmthick. In some embodiments, the layer of interstitial tissue comprisingmyofibroblasts is less than 500 μm thick. In some embodiments, the layerof interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts is less than 600 μmthick. In some embodiments, the layer of interstitial tissue comprisingmyofibroblasts is less than 1000 μm thick.

In some embodiments, the intestinal tissue models comprise a layer ofepithelial tissue comprising mammalian epithelial cells. In furtherembodiments, the epithelial cells are intestinal tissue epithelial cells(e.g., human intestinal epithelial cells). In still further embodiments,suitable intestinal tissue epithelial cells are primary isolates orcells derived from the directed differentiation of stem cells (e.g.,iPSC-derived and/or human embryonic stem cell (hES)-derived). In someembodiments, the intestinal tissue epithelial cells are immortalizedhuman cells. Methods to generate immortalized intestinal epithelialcells are described in, for example, Paul E C, Hochman J, Quaroni A(1993). Conditionally immortalized intestinal epithelial cells: novelapproach for study of differentiated enterocytes. Am J Physiol. 265(1 Pt1):C266-78 and Whitehead R H, VanEeden P E, Noble M D, Ataliotis P, JatP S (1993). Establishment of conditionally immortalized epithelial celllines from both colon and small intestine of adult H-2Kb-tsA58transgenic mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 90(2):587-91. In otherembodiments, the intestinal tissue epithelial cells are immortalizedcells such as Ca Ski or HT-29 cells.

In some embodiments, the epithelial cells are derived from a non-humanmammal such as, for example, rat, mouse, pig, or primate. In otherembodiments, the epithelial cells are derived from a human.

In some embodiments, the layer of epithelial tissue consists essentiallyof intestinal tissue epithelial cells. In some embodiments, the layer ofepithelial tissue consists essentially of primary intestinal tissueepithelial cells. In some embodiments, the layer of epithelial tissueconsists essentially of intestinal tissue epithelial cells. In someembodiments, the layer of epithelial tissue consists essentially ofprimary intestinal tissue epithelial cells. In some embodiments, thelayer of intestinal tissue is substantially a monolayer. In someembodiments, intestinal tissue epithelial cells are the only cellspresent in the layer of intestinal epithelial tissue. In someembodiments, the layer of epithelial tissue comprises tumor cells. Insome embodiments, the layer of epithelial tissue comprises intestinalcarcinoma, sarcoma, lymphoma and/or adenocarcinoma cells. In someembodiments, the layer of epithelial tissue comprises a monolayer over95% of its surface area. In some embodiments, the layer of epithelialtissue comprises a monolayer over 90% of its surface area. In someembodiments, the layer of epithelial tissue comprises a monolayer over80% of its surface area. In some embodiments, the layer of epithelialtissue is greater than 1 cell thick. In some embodiments, the layer ofepithelial tissue is greater than 2 cells thick. In some embodiments,the layer of epithelial tissue is greater than 3 cells thick. In someembodiments, the layer of epithelial tissue is greater than 4 cellsthick. In some embodiments, the layer of epithelial tissue is greaterthan 5 cells thick. In some embodiments, the layer of epithelial tissueis greater than 10 cells thick. In some embodiments, the layer ofepithelial tissue is greater than 20 cells thick. In some embodiments,the layer of epithelial tissue is greater than 50 cells thick. In someembodiments, the layer of epithelial tissue is greater than 100 cellsthick. In some embodiments, the layer of epithelial tissue is 2-100cells thick. In some embodiments, the layer of epithelial tissue isgreater than 20 μm thick. In some embodiments, the layer of epithelialtissue is greater than 30 μm thick. In some embodiments, the layer ofepithelial tissue is greater than 40 μm thick. In some embodiments, thelayer of epithelial tissue is greater than 50 μm thick. In someembodiments, the layer of epithelial tissue is greater than 100 μmthick. In some embodiments, the layer of epithelial tissue is greaterthan 200 μm thick. In some embodiments, the layer of epithelial tissueis greater than 500 μm thick. In some embodiments, the layer ofinterstitial tissue is greater than 600 μm thick. In some embodiments,the layer of epithelial tissue is greater than 1000 μm thick. In someembodiments, the layer of epithelial tissue is 20-1000 μm thick. In someembodiments, the layer of epithelial tissue is less than 1000 μm thick.In some embodiments, the layer of interstitial tissue is less than 600μm thick. In some embodiments, the layer of epithelial tissue is lessthan 500 μm thick. In some embodiments, the layer of epithelial tissueis less than 200 μm thick. In some embodiments, the layer of epithelialtissue is less than 100 μm thick. In some embodiments, the layer ofepithelial tissue is less than 50 μm thick. In some embodiments, thelayer of epithelial tissue is less than 40 μm thick. In someembodiments, the layer of epithelial tissue is less than 30 μm thick. Insome embodiments, the layer of epithelial tissue is less than 20 μmthick.

Optionally, the intestinal tissue models comprise other cell types(e.g., GPL-1-producing cells, immune cells, endothelial cells, smoothmuscle cells, neuronal cells, etc.). In some embodiments, the immunecells are T cells. In some embodiments, the immune cells are B cells. Insome embodiments, the immune cells are NK cells. In some embodiments,the immune cells are dendritic cells. In some embodiments, the immunecells are macrophage cells.

A wide range of cell ratios are suitable. In some embodiments, theepithelial layer comprises, consists of, or consists essentially ofintestinal tissue epithelial cells. In some embodiments, themyofibroblast cells are the only cells present in the layer ofmyofibroblast interstitial tissue. In some embodiments, themyofibroblasts and epithelial cells are present in the intestinal modelin specific ratios. Suitable proportions of myofibroblasts include, byway of non-limiting examples, about 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45,50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, and 95% myofibroblasts, includingincrements therein. Suitable proportions of epithelial cells include, byway of non-limiting examples, about 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45,50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, and 95% epithelial cells, includingincrements therein. In certain embodiments, the ratio of myofibroblastto epithelial cells is at least 5:95, 10:90, 15:85, 20:80, 25:75, 30:70,35:65, 40:60, 45:65, 50:50, 55:45, 60:40, 65:35, 70:30, 75:25, 80:20,85:15, 90:10 or 95:5, including increments therein. In certainembodiments, the ratio of myofibroblast to epithelial cells is 5:95 to95:5. In certain embodiments, the ratio of myofibroblast to epithelialcells is no more than 5:95, 10:90, 15:85, 20:80, 25:75, 30:70, 35:65,40:60, 45:65, 50:50, 55:45, 60:40, 65:35, 70:30, 75:25, 80:20, 85:15,90:10 or 95:5, including increments therein. In certain embodiments, theratio of myofibroblast to epithelial cells is about 50:50. In certainembodiments, the ratio of myofibroblast to epithelial cells is fromabout 60:40 to about 40:60.

A wide range of cell concentrations are suitable for bio-inks. Bio-inksare suitably prepared for continuous deposition bioprinting techniqueswith concentrations of cells including, by way of non-limiting examples,about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90,100, 110, 120, 130, 140, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, 200, 225, 250, 275,300, or more, million cells per milliliter of bio-ink. In a particularembodiment, bio-ink prepared for continuous deposition bioprintingcomprises about 100-200 million cells/mL. Bio-inks are suitably preparedfor ink-jet deposition bioprinting techniques with concentrations ofcells including, by way of non-limiting examples, about 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2,3, 5, 10, 15 or more, million cells per milliliter of bio-ink. In aparticular embodiment, bio-ink prepared for ink-jet depositionbioprinting comprises about 1-5 million cells/mL. In a particularembodiment, bio-ink prepared for ink-jet deposition bioprintingcomprises about 1-4 million cells/mL. In a particular embodiment,bio-ink prepared for ink-jet deposition bioprinting comprises about 1-3million cells/mL. In a particular embodiment, bio-ink prepared forink-jet deposition bioprinting comprises about 1-2 million cells/mL.

In certain embodiments, the intestinal tissue bio-ink comprises between50 million and 1 billion cells per milliliter. In certain embodiments,the intestinal tissue bio-ink comprises between 50 million and 900million cells per milliliter. In certain embodiments, the intestinaltissue bio-ink comprises between 50 million and 800 million cells permilliliter. In certain embodiments, the intestinal tissue bio-inkcomprises between 50 million and 700 million cells per milliliter. Incertain embodiments, the intestinal tissue bio-ink comprises between 50million and 600 million cells per milliliter. In certain embodiments,the intestinal tissue bio-ink comprises between 50 million and 500million cells per milliliter. In certain embodiments, the intestinaltissue bio-ink comprises between 50 million and 400 million cells permilliliter. In certain embodiments, the intestinal tissue bio-inkcomprises between 50 million and 300 million cells per milliliter. Incertain embodiments, the intestinal tissue bio-ink comprises between 50million and 200 million cells per milliliter. In certain embodiments,the intestinal tissue bio-ink comprises between 75 million and 600million cells per milliliter. In certain embodiments, the intestinaltissue bio-ink comprises between 100 million and 600 million cells permilliliter. In certain embodiments, the intestinal tissue bio-inkcomprises between 100 million and 500 million cells per milliliter. Incertain embodiments, the intestinal tissue bio-ink comprises between 100million and 400 million cells per milliliter. In certain embodiments,the intestinal tissue bio-ink comprises between 100 million and 300million cells per milliliter. In certain embodiments, the intestinaltissue bio-ink comprises between 100 million and 200 million cells permilliliter. In certain embodiments, the intestinal tissue bio-inkcomprises between 100 million and 150 million cells per milliliter.

In certain embodiments, the bio-ink is a viscous liquid. In certainembodiments, the bio-ink is a semi-solid. In certain embodiments, thebio-ink is a solid. In certain embodiments, the viscosity of the bio-inkis greater than 100 centipoise. In certain embodiments, the viscosity ofthe bio-ink is greater than 200 centipoise. In certain embodiments, theviscosity of the bio-ink is greater than 500 centipoise. In certainembodiments, the viscosity of the bio-ink is greater than 1,000centipoise. In certain embodiments, the viscosity of the bio-ink isgreater than 2,000 centipoise. In certain embodiments, the viscosity ofthe bio-ink is greater than 5,000 centipoise. In certain embodiments,the viscosity of the bio-ink is greater than 10,000 centipoise. Incertain embodiments, the viscosity of the bio-ink is greater than 20,000centipoise. In certain embodiments, the viscosity of the bio-ink isgreater than 50,000 centipoise. In certain embodiments, the viscosity ofthe bio-ink is greater than 100,000 centipoise. In certain embodiments,the viscosity of the bio-ink is less than 100 centipoise. In certainembodiments, the viscosity of the bio-ink is less than 200 centipoise.In certain embodiments, the viscosity of the bio-ink is less than 500centipoise. In certain embodiments, the viscosity of the bio-ink is lessthan 1,000 centipoise. In certain embodiments, the viscosity of thebio-ink is less than 2,000 centipoise. In certain embodiments, theviscosity of the bio-ink is less than 5,000 centipoise. In certainembodiments, the viscosity of the bio-ink is less than 10,000centipoise. In certain embodiments, the viscosity of the bio-ink is lessthan 20,000 centipoise. In certain embodiments, the viscosity of thebio-ink is less than 50,000 centipoise. In certain embodiments, theviscosity of the bio-ink is less than 100,000 centipoise. In certainembodiments, the viscosity of the bio-ink is 100-100,000 centipoise.

Architectural Features of the Intestinal Tissue Model

The intestinal models of the present disclosure can be architecturallyarranged in many configurations. In certain embodiments, the epithelialtissue and interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts are separatearchitecturally distinct layers that are in direct contact or separatedby 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20 μm or more, includingincrements therein. In certain embodiments, the separation is due to thesecretion and deposition of collagen between the two layers to form abasal lamina, which for the purposes of this disclosure is consideredcontact. In normal physiological tissue cells and cell layers arepolarized to have an apical (lumen facing) surface and a basolateralsurface, which faces other cells or tissue matrix. For the purposes ofthe intestinal tissue models disclosed herein the basolateral surfacerefers to a surface that faces another cell, an extracellular matrix orthe surface of a biocompatible membrane or culture vessel. For thepurposes of the intestinal tissue models disclosed herein the apicalsurface refers to a surface that faces away from the surface of abiocompatible membrane or culture vessel. In some embodiments, theintestinal tissue epithelial cells are polarized. In some embodiments,the layer of intestinal tissue possesses an apical and basolateralsurface.

In one embodiment, one or bioinks may comprise a cellular mixture ofsome proportion of intestinal myofibroblasts, intestinal epithelialcells, Caco-2 epithelial cells, and STC-1 enteroendocrine cells and maycontain a biomaterial support. In another embodiment, a bioinkcomprising primary intestinal myofibroblasts in Novogel® is printed toproduce a tissue mimicking the mucosal interstitial layer. In anotherembodiment, a bioink comprising primary intestinal myofibroblasts incollagen is printed to produce a tissue mimicking the mucosalinterstitial layer. In another embodiment, a cellular suspensioncomprising primary intestinal epithelial cells, Caco-2 cells, STC-1cells or a mixture of these cell types is added to produce a tissue tomimic the epithelium. In one embodiment, the cellular suspension ismanually added on top of the printed mucosal interstitial tissue tocreate a layered structure. In another embodiment, the manual additionof cell suspension is automated and bioprinted as a spray (e.g. by inkjet deposition (see U.S. Pat. No. 7,051,654) or microsolenoid (MSV) orextruded onto a printed tissue. The epithelial layer may be deposited asa single cell suspension or as cell aggregates. The epithelial layer maybe deposited in growth media or in a bioink containing matrix materials.In one embodiment, the cells are mixed with basement membrane componentsincluding collagen 4, laminin, and heparin sulfate proteoglycans toimprove contact between the epidermal and interstitial layers. Inanother embodiment, the epithelial layer may be deposited in growthmedia or in a bioink containing matrix materials subsequent to thedeposition of a layer of basement membrane components.

In some embodiments, the intestinal tissue model further comprises abiocompatible membrane. In certain embodiments, the basolateral surfaceof the interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts is the surfaceattached to a biocompatible membrane or culture vessel; and the apicalsurface of the interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblastsinterstitial tissue comprising is the surface not attached to abiocompatible membrane or culture vessel. In certain embodiments, theepithelial tissue layer is deposited onto and forms a layer on theapical surface of the interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts,thus forming two architecturally distinct layers. In certainembodiments, the epithelial tissue and interstitial tissue comprisingmyofibroblasts are in continuous contact. In certain embodiments,between 99%-100% of the epithelial tissue layer is in continuous contactwith the interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts. In certainembodiments, between 95%-100% of the epithelial tissue layer is incontinuous contact with the interstitial tissue comprisingmyofibroblasts. In certain embodiments, between 90%-100% of theepithelial tissue layer is in continuous contact with the interstitialtissue comprising myofibroblasts. In certain embodiments, 50-99% of theepithelial tissue layer is in continuous contact with the interstitialtissue comprising myofibroblasts. In certain embodiments, between80%-100% of the epithelial tissue layer is in continuous contact withthe interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts. In certainembodiments, between 70%-100% of the epithelial tissue layer is incontinuous contact with the interstitial tissue comprisingmyofibroblasts. In certain embodiments, between 60%-100% of theepithelial tissue layer is in continuous contact with the interstitialtissue comprising myofibroblasts. In certain embodiments, between50%-100% of the epithelial tissue layer is in continuous contact withthe interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts. In certainembodiments, less than 99% of the epithelial tissue layer is incontinuous contact with the interstitial tissue comprisingmyofibroblasts. In certain embodiments, less than 98% of the epithelialtissue layer is in continuous contact with the interstitial tissuecomprising myofibroblasts. In certain embodiments, less than 97% of theepithelial tissue layer is in continuous contact with the interstitialtissue comprising myofibroblasts. In certain embodiments, less than 95%of the epithelial tissue layer is in continuous contact with theinterstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts. In certain embodiments,less than 90% of the epithelial tissue layer is in continuous contactwith the interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts. In certainembodiments, less than 80% of the epithelial tissue layer is incontinuous contact with the interstitial tissue comprisingmyofibroblasts. In certain embodiments, the epithelial tissue layercompletely covers the apical surface of the interstitial tissuecomprising myofibroblasts. In certain embodiments, the epithelial tissuelayer covers between 99%-100% of the apical surface of the interstitialtissue comprising myofibroblasts. In certain embodiments, the epithelialtissue layer covers between 95%-100% of the apical surface of theinterstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts. In certain embodiments,the epithelial tissue layer covers between 90%-100% of the apicalsurface of the interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts. In certainembodiments, the epithelial tissue layer covers between 80%-100% of theapical surface of the interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts. Incertain embodiments, the epithelial tissue layer covers between 70%-100%of the apical surface of the interstitial tissue comprisingmyofibroblasts. In certain embodiments, the epithelial tissue layercovers between 60%-100% of the apical surface of the interstitial tissuecomprising myofibroblasts. In certain embodiments, the epithelial tissuelayer covers between 50%-100% of the apical surface of the interstitialtissue comprising myofibroblasts. In certain embodiments, the epithelialtissue layer covers less than 99% of the apical surface of theinterstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts. In certain embodiments,the epithelial tissue layer covers less than 98% of the apical surfaceof the interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts. In certainembodiments, the epithelial tissue layer covers less than 97% of theapical surface of the interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts. Incertain embodiments, the epithelial tissue layer covers less than 95% ofthe apical surface of the interstitial tissue comprising myofibroblasts.In certain embodiments, the epithelial tissue layer covers less than 90%of the apical surface of the interstitial tissue comprisingmyofibroblasts. In certain embodiments, the epithelial tissue layercovers less than 80% of the apical surface of the interstitial tissuecomprising myofibroblasts. In certain embodiments, the epithelial tissuelayer covers less than 70% of the apical surface of the interstitialtissue comprising myofibroblasts. In certain embodiments, the epithelialtissue layer covers 50-99% of the apical surface of the interstitialtissue comprising myofibroblasts.

The intestinal tissue construct produced as described herein comprisesone or more of the following features:

-   -   It comprises a bi-layer structure comprising a layer of        intestinal epithelial cells on top of a supporting layer of        intestinal mucosal interstitium comprising myofibroblasts, one        or both layers optionally further comprising one or more other        cells including immune cells.    -   It comprises one or more of the intestinal epithelial cell        markers CK8, CK18 and CK19. Methods for detecting CK8, CK18 and        CK19 markers are disclosed by Notohara K, Hamazaki S, Tsukayama        C, Nakamoto S, Kawabata K, Mizobuchi K, Sakamoto K, Okada S        (2000). Solid-pseudopapillary tumor of the pancreas:        immunohistochemical localization of neuroendocrine markers and        CD10. Am J Surg Pathol. 24(10):1361-71.    -   It comprises one or more of the intestinal myofibroblast markers        vimentin and a-sma. Methods for detecting vimentin and a-sma        markers are disclosed by Essawy M, Soylemezoglu O,        Muchaneta-Kubara E C, Shortland J, Brown C B, el Nahas A M        (1997). Myofibroblasts and the progression of diabetic        nephropathy. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 12(1):43-50.    -   It manifests polarization of the intestinal epithelial cell with        the formation of intracellular tight junctions. The tight        junctions are identified by detecting E-Cadherin and/or ZO-1.        Methods for detecting Cadherin and ZO-1 are disclosed by        Radhakrishna K. RAO, Shyamali BASUROY, Vijay U. RAO, Karl J.        KARNAKY, Jr and Akshay GUPTA (2002). Tyrosine phosphorylation        and dissociation of occluding ZO-1 and E-cadhering β-catenin        complexes from the cytoskeleton by oxidative stress. Biochem. J.        368:471-481.    -   It manifests basolateral markers on the epithelial cells.        Methods for detecting basolateral markers are disclosed by        Parton R G, Prydz K, Bomsel M, Simons K, Griffiths G. (1989).        Meeting of the apical and basolateral endocytic pathways of the        Madin-Darby canine kidney cell in late endosomes. J Cell Biol.        109(6 Pt 2):3259-72.    -   It manifests brush boarder formation (villin). Methods for        detecting brush boarder formation are disclosed by Chantret I,        Barbat A, Dussaulx E, Brattain M G, Zweibaum A. (1988).        Epithelial polarity, villin expression, and enterocytic        differentiation of cultured human colon carcinoma cells: a        survey of twenty cell lines. Cancer Res. 1988 48(7):1936-42.    -   It manifests mucosal barrier formation. Methods for detecting        mucosal barrier formation are disclosed by Dorofeyev A E1,        Vasilenko I V, Rassokhina O A, Kondratiuk R B (2013). Mucosal        barrier in ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. Gastroenterol        Res Pract. Epub 2013 May 7.    -   It expresses one or more of the transporters/enzymes P-gp/MDR1,        CYP3A4, BCRP, MRP2, MRP3, PEPT1, OATPB1, ASBT, MDT1, OCTN2,        OSTalpha, OSTbeta, CES2, CYP2C19, CYP2C8, CYP2C9, CYP2J2,        CYP2S1, CYP4F12, GSTP1, UGT1A1. Methods for detecting P-gp/MDR1,        CYP3A4, BCRP, MRP2, MRP3, PEPT1, and OATPB1 are disclosed by        Taipalensuu J, Törnblom H, Lindberg G, Einarsson C, Sjöqvist F,        Melhus H, Garberg P, Sjöström B, Lundgren B, Artursson P (2001).        Correlation of gene expression of ten drug efflux proteins of        the ATP-binding cassette transporter family in normal human        jejunum and in human intestinal epithelial Caco-2 cell        monolayers. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 299(1):164-70; Sticova E,        Lodererova A, van de Steeg E, Frankova S, Kollar M, Lanska V,        Kotalova R, Dedic T, Schinkel A H, Jirsa M (2015).        Down-regulation of OATP1B proteins correlates with        hyperbilirubinemia in advanced cholestasis. Int J Clin Exp        Pathol. 8(5):5252-5262; and Kudo M, Katayoshi T,        Kobayashi-Nakamura K, Akagawa M, Tsuji-Naito K (2016).        H+/peptide transporter (PEPT2) is expressed in human epidermal        keratinocytes and is involved in skin oligopeptide transport.        Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 475(4):335-341.    -   It manifests a basal lamina between the epithelial cell layer        and the interstitial layer as evidenced by collagen IV staining.        Methods of staining collagen IV are disclosed by Sanes J R,        Engvall E, Butkowski R, Hunter D D (1990). Molecular        heterogeneity of basal laminae: isoforms of laminin and collagen        IV at the neuromuscular junction and elsewhere. J Cell Biol.        111(4):1685-99.    -   It manifests a barrier with permeability/absorption        characteristics. Permeability/absorption characteristics may be        identified by determining a transendothelial electrical        resistance (TEER) value or Lucifer permeability. Methods for        determining TEER values and Lucifer permeability are disclosed        by Akbari P, Braber S, Alizadeh A, Verheij den K A, Schoterman M        H, Kraneveld A D, Garssen J, Fink-Gremmels J (2015).        Galacto-oligosaccharides Protect the Intestinal Barrier by        Maintaining the Tight Junction Network and Modulating the        Inflammatory Responses after a Challenge with the Mycotoxin        Deoxynivalenol in Human Caco-2 Cell Monolayers and B6C3F1 Mice.        J Nutr. 145(7):1604-1613 and Venugopal R, Galam L, Cox R,        Fukumoto J, Cho Y, Parthasarathy P T, Lockey R F, Kolliputi N        (2015). Inflammasome Inhibition Suppresses Alveolar Cell        Permeability Through Retention of Neuregulin-1 (NRG-1). Cell        Physiol Biochem. 36(5):2012-24.    -   It manifests active transport via intestinal transporters and        metabolic enzymes. Examples of intestinal transporters include        HPT1, PEPT1, BCRP, MRP2, MDR1, OATP1A3, ONTP2B1, OATP1B1,        OATP1B3, SVCT1, GLUT2, GLUT5, and SGLT1. Methods for detecting        the activity of intestinal transporters are disclosed by, for        example, Hilgendorf C, Ahlin G, Seithel A, Artursson P, Ungell A        L, Karlsson J (2007). Expression of thirty-six drug transporter        genes in human intestine, liver, kidney, and organotypic cell        lines. Drug Metab Dispos. 35(8):1333-40.    -   When it comprises myeloid immune cells, it manifests myeloid        activation. In one embodiment, myeloid activation is induced by        treatment with LPS and/or interferon-gamma. Methods for inducing        myeloid activation is disclosed by Greifenberg V, Ribechini E,        Rossner S, Lutz M B (2009). Myeloid-derived suppressor cell        activation by combined LPS and IFN-gamma treatment impairs DC        development. Eur J Immunol. 39(10):2865-76.    -   It manifests gene expression corresponding to the expressed        markers. Examples of such genes include CYP3A4, CK19, CHGA, and        MUC2. Methods for detecting such gene expression is disclosed by        Taipalensuu J, Törnblom H, Lindberg G, Einarsson C, Sjöqvist F,        Melhus H, Garberg P, Sjöström B, Lundgren B, Artursson P (2001).        Correlation of gene expression of ten drug efflux proteins of        the ATP-binding cassette transporter family in normal human        jejunum and in human intestinal epithelial Caco-2 cell        monolayers. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 299(1):164-70; Chang S K,        Dohrman A F, Basbaum C B, Ho S B, Tsuda T, Toribara N W, Gum J        R, Kim Y S (1994). Localization of mucin (MUC2 and MUC3)        messenger RNA and peptide expression in human normal intestine        and colon cancer. Gastroenterology. 107(1):28-36; and Kelly O G,        Chan M Y, Martinson L A, Kadoya K, Ostertag T M, Ross K G,        Richardson M, Carpenter M K, D'Amour K A, Kroon E, Moorman M,        Baetge E E, Bang A G (2011). Cell-surface markers for the        isolation of pancreatic cell types derived from human embryonic        stem cells. Nat Biotechnol. 29(8):750-6.    -   It manifests enteroendocrine function and production of gut        peptides in response to nutrient stimulation. Enteroendocrine        function and/or production of gut peptides may be determined by        detecting changes in the levels of glucagon-like peptide-1        (GLP-1), PYY and/or cholecystokinin (CCK), somatostatin (SST),        peptide YY (PYY), and gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP). Methods        for detecting levels of GLP-1, PYY and CCK are disclosed by        Egerod K L, Engelstoft M S, Grunddal K V, Nøhr M K, Secher A,        Sakata I, Pedersen J, Windelov J A, Füchtbauer E M, Olsen J,        Sundler F, Christensen J P, Wierup N, Olsen J V, Holst J J,        Zigman J M, Poulsen S S, Schwartz T W (2012). A major lineage of        enteroendocrine cells coexpress CCK, secretin, GIP, GLP-1, PYY,        and neurotensin but not somatostatin. Endocrinology.        153(12):5782-95.    -   It manifests the expression of additional markers associate with        additional optional cell types including lymphoid cells (CD4,        CD8, CD19 and CD15), enteroendrocrine markers (CHGA, GLP-1, PYY,        CCK), goblet cell markers (MUC2), vascular markers (CD31), and        stem cell markers (LGR5). Methods for detecting CD4, CD8, CD19,        CD15, CHGA, GLP-1, PYY, CCK, MUC2, CD31, and LGR5 are disclosed        by Reading C L, Estey E H, Huh Y O, Claxton D F, Sanchez G,        Terstappen L W, O'Brien M C, Baron S, Deisseroth A B (1993).        Expression of unusual immunophenotype combinations in acute        myelogenous leukemia. Blood. 81(11):3083-90; Zhao X, Zhao Q, Luo        Z, Yu Y, Xiao N, Sun X, Cheng L (2015). Spontaneous        immortalization of mouse liver sinusoidal endothelial cells. Int        J Mot Med. 35(3):617-24; Fan X S, Wu H Y, Yu H P, Zhou Q, Zhang        Y F, Huang Q (2010). Expression of Lgr5 in human colorectal        carcinogenesis and its potential correlation with beta-catenin.        Int J Colorectal Dis. 25(5):583-90; and references cited above.    -   It manifests mucus secretion/formation of a mucosal barrier.        Mucus secretion/formation of a mucosal barrier may be determined        by detecting mucin 2 (MUC2). Methods for detecting mucin 2 are        disclosed by Chang S K, Dohrman A F, Basbaum C B, Ho S B, Tsuda        T, Toribara N W, Gum J R, Kim Y S (1994). Localization of mucin        (MUC2 and MUC3) messenger RNA and peptide expression in human        normal intestine and colon cancer. Gastroenterology.        107(1):28-36.    -   It exhibits lipid metabolism/transport. Methods for detecting        lipid metabolism/transport are disclosed by, for example, Welti        R, Wang X (2004). Lipid species profiling: a high-throughput        approach to identify lipid compositional changes and determine        the function of genes involved in lipid metabolism and        signaling. Curr Opin Plant Biol. 7(3):337-44 and Pfeffer P E,        Douds Jr D D, Becard G, Shachar-Hill Y. Carbon uptake and the        metabolism and transport of lipids in an arbuscular mycorrhiza.        Plant Physiol. 1999 June; 120(2):587-98.    -   It manifests inflammation and immune responses. Inflammation and        immune responses of tissues and methods for detecting are        reviewed by, for example, Pantenburg B, Dann S M, Wang H C,        Robinson P, Castellanos-Gonzalez A, Lewis D E, White A C Jr        (2008). Intestinal immune response to human Cryptosporidium sp.        infection. Infect Immun. 76(1):23-9 and Trine H. Mogensen (2009)        Pathogen Recognition and Inflammatory Signaling in Innate Immune        Defenses. Clin Microbiol Rev. 22(2): 240-273. In this        embodiment, the tissue construct can be used to model intestinal        injury (acute, subchronic and/or chronic) and recovery. In        another embodiment, the tissue construct can be used to model        gut diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease, ulcerative        colitis and Crohn's disease. In another embodiment, the tissue        construct can be used to evaluate the impact of immune        modulation on either normal or diseased intestinal tissue.    -   When damaged, the tissue construct exhibits fibrosis and        fibrotic scar formation. Fibrosis is caused by chronic tissue        inflammation and characterized by an excessive deposition of        extracellular matrix (ECM) components, such as collagens. The        mechanisms of intestinal fibrosis are discussed in Silvia Speca,        Ilaria Giusti, Florian Rieder, and Giovanni Latella (2012).        Cellular and molecular mechanisms of intestinal fibrosis. World        J Gastroenterol. 18(28): 3635-3661.

When myeloid immune cells are present, it comprises one or more of themyeloid cell markers CD14, CD206 and CD68. Methods for detecting CD14,CD206 and CD68 markers are disclosed by Catherine E. Angel, Chun-Jen J.Chen, Oliver C. Horlacher, Sintia Winkler, Thomas John, Judy Browning,Duncan MacGregor, Jonathan Cebon and P. Rod Dunbar (2009) Distinctivelocalization of antigen-presenting cells in human lymph nodes. Blood2009(113):1257-1267. B cells can be detected by cell surface expressionof HLA-DR, CD19, and CD20. Activated B cells can be detected by cellsurface expression of CD19, CD25, and CD30. Effector B cells can bedetected by cell surface expression of CD138. T cells can be detected bycell surface expression of CD2, CD3, CD4, CD8, CD25, CD38, and CD54,etc. Activated T cells can be detected by cell surface expression ofCD25, s CD25, CD27, CD30, CD69, CD71, CD154 (CD40L), and CD278 (ICOS).NK cells can be detected by cell surface expression of CD56. In humans,the major dendritic cells (DCs) subsets include conventional DCs (cDCs)and plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs), which differ in their expression of surfacemarkers, Toll-like receptors (TLRs), and in the cytokines produced afteractivation. cDCs are positive for CD11c and carry either CD1c (BDCA1) orCD141 (BDCA3). CD1c⁺ cDCs express TLR1 through TLR8 and TLR10 andCD1c⁻CD141⁺ cDCs expresses TLR1, 2, 3, 6, 8, and 10. pDCs express TLR1,6, and 10. Detection can be done by flow cytometry immunophenotyping.Immunophenotyping can be done in heterogeneous cell populations or on acell-by-cell basis (single cell analysis). Antibodies suitable fordetections of lymphocyte specific cell surface markers are commerciallyavailable, such as from Abcam and R&D Systems, Inc. The lymphocytes cellsurface markers and methods for detections are provided in Andrade M C,Ferreira S B, Gonçalves L C, De-Paula A M, de Faria E S,Teixeira-Carvalho A, Martins-Filho O A (2013). Cell surface markers forT and B lymphocytes activation and adhesion as putative prognosticbiomarkers for head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Hum Immunol.74(12):1563-74; Kragh M, Larsen J M, Thysen A H, Rasmussen M A, Wolsk HM, Bisgaard H, Brix S (2016). Divergent response profile in activatedcord blood T cells from first-born child implies birth-order-associatedin utero immune programming. Allergy. 71(3):323-32; Oboshi W, Aki K,Tada T, Watanabe T, Yukimasa N, Ueno I, Saito K, Hosoi E (2016). FlowCytometric Evaluation of Surface CD56 Expression on Activated NaturalKiller Cells as Functional Marker. J Med Invest. 63(3-4):199-203;Meixlsperger S, Leung C S, Ramer P C, Pack M, Vanoaica L D, Breton G,Pascolo S, Salazar A M, Dzionek A, Schmitz J, Steinman R M, Münz C(2013). CD141+ dendritic cells produce prominent amounts of IFN-α afterdsRNA recognition and can be targeted via DEC-205 in humanized mice.Blood. 121(25):5034-44.

In certain embodiments, at least 50% of intestinal epithelial cells ofthe intestinal epithelial layer form tight junctions with otherintestinal epithelial cells. In certain embodiments, at least 70% ofintestinal epithelial cells of the intestinal epithelial layer formtight junctions with other intestinal epithelial cells. In certainembodiments, at least 90% of intestinal epithelial cells of theintestinal epithelial layer form tight junctions with other epithelialcells. In certain embodiments, 50-90% of intestinal epithelial cells ofthe intestinal epithelial layer form tight junctions with otherintestinal epithelial cells.

Architecture of the Epithelial Tissue Layer

Normally an epithelial tissue cell forms tight junctions withneighboring cells. The tight junctions are marked by the transmembraneprotein family called the cadherins. One of these, E-cadherin, isespecially prominent at tight junctions in intestinal tissue, and markstheir formation. In certain embodiments, the epithelial tissue layercontains only (i.e., “consists of”) cells that form tight junctions. Incertain embodiments, substantially all cells in the epithelial tissuelayer form a tight junction with at least one neighboring cell. Incertain embodiments, between 99%-100% of cells in the epithelial tissuelayer form a tight junction with at least one other cell. In certainembodiments, between 95%-100% of cells in the epithelial tissue layerform a tight junction with at least one other cell. In certainembodiments, between 90%-100% of cells in the epithelial tissue layerform a tight junction with at least one other cell. In certainembodiments, between 80%-100% of cells in the epithelial tissue layerform a tight junction with at least one other cell. In certainembodiments, between 70%-100% of cells in the epithelial tissue layerform a tight junction with at least one other cell. In certainembodiments, between 60%-100% of cells in the epithelial tissue layerform a tight junction with at least one other cell. In certainembodiments, between 50%-100% of cells in the epithelial tissue layerform a tight junction with at least one other cell. In certainembodiments, 50-99% of cells in the epithelial tissue layer form a tightjunction with at least one other cell.

In another embodiment, the epithelial tissue layer exhibits a brushborder characterized by microvilli as are present on native intestinaltissue. The brush boarder may be detected by apical staining of villin.

Viability and Density of the Cell Layers

An advantage of bioprinting by the methods of this disclosure is thatcells can be printed at high density and high viability. In certainembodiments, the density of the epithelial/interstitial cell layer isgreater than 1×10⁶ cells per mL. In certain embodiments, the density ofthe epithelial/interstitial cell layer is at least 5×10⁶ cells per mL.In certain embodiments, the density of the epithelial/interstitial celllayer is at least 10×10⁶ cells per mL. In certain embodiments, thedensity of the epithelial/interstitial cell layer is at least 20×10⁶cells per mL. In certain embodiments, the density of theepithelial/interstitial cell layer is at least 50×10⁶ cells per mL. Incertain embodiments, the density of the epithelial/interstitial celllayer is at least 100×10⁶ cells per mL. In certain embodiments, thedensity of the epithelial/interstitial cell layer is at least 200×10⁶cells per mL. In certain embodiments, the density of theepithelial/interstitial cell layer is at least 500×10⁶ cells per mL. Incertain embodiments, the density of the epithelial/interstitial celllayer is between about 100×10⁶ cells per mL and about 900×10⁶ cells permL. In certain embodiments, the density of the epithelial/interstitialcell layer is between about 100×10⁶ cells per mL and about 700×10⁶ cellsper mL. In certain embodiments, the density of theepithelial/interstitial cell layer is between about 100×10⁶ cells per mLand about 600×10⁶ cells per mL. In certain embodiments, the density ofthe epithelial/interstitial cell layer is between about 100×10⁶ cellsper mL and about 500×10⁶ cells per mL. In certain embodiments, thedensity of the epithelial/interstitial cell layer is between about100×10⁶ cells per mL and about 300×10⁶ cells per mL. In certainembodiments, the density of the epithelial/interstitial cell layer isbetween about 100×10⁶ cells per mL and about 200×10⁶ cells per mL. Incertain embodiments, the layer of epithelial/interstitial tissue orlayer of epithelial tissue is between 70%-100% living cells by volume.In certain embodiments, the viability of the epithelial/interstitialtissue layer is greater than 99% living cells by volume. In certainembodiments, the viability of the epithelial/interstitial tissue layeris greater than 95% living cells by volume. In certain embodiments, theviability of the epithelial/interstitial tissue layer is greater than90% living cells by volume. In certain embodiments, the viability of theepithelial/interstitial tissue layer is greater than 80% living cells byvolume. In certain embodiments, the viability of theepithelial/interstitial tissue layer is greater than 70% living cells byvolume. In certain embodiments, the viability of theepithelial/interstitial tissue layer is greater than 60% living cells byvolume. In certain embodiments, the viability of theepithelial/interstitial tissue layer is greater than 50% living cells byvolume. In certain embodiments, the viability of theepithelial/interstitial tissue layer is 50-99% living cells by volume.In certain embodiments, this viability is maintained for at least 8, 12,24, 48, 72, 96, or more hours post printing. In certain embodiments,this viability is maintained for at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,11, 12, 13, 14, 21, or more days post printing. In certain embodiments,the density of the epithelial cell layer is at least 0.1×10⁵ cells permL. In certain embodiments, the density of the epithelial cell layer isat least 1×10⁵ cells per mL. In certain embodiments, the density of theepithelial cell layer is at least 5×10⁵ cells per mL. In certainembodiments, the density of the epithelial cell layer is at least 1×10⁶cells per mL. In certain embodiments, the density of the epithelial celllayer is at least 5×10⁶ cells per mL. In certain embodiments, thedensity of the epithelial cell layer is at least 10×10⁶ cells per mL. Incertain embodiments, the density of the epithelial cell layer is atleast 20×10⁶ cells per mL. In certain embodiments, the density of theepithelial cell layer is at least 50×10⁶ cells per mL. In certainembodiments, the density of the epithelial cell layer is at least100×10⁶ cells per mL. In certain embodiments, the density of theepithelial cell layer is at least 200×10⁶ cells per mL. In certainembodiments, the density of the epithelial cell layer is at least500×10⁶ cells per mL. In certain embodiments, the density of theepithelial cell layer is less than 1×10⁵ cells per mL. In certainembodiments, the density of the epithelial cell layer is less than 2×10⁵cells per mL. In certain embodiments, the density of the epithelial celllayer is less than 5×10⁵ cells per mL. In certain embodiments, thedensity of the epithelial cell layer is less than 1×10⁶ cells per mL. Incertain embodiments, the density of the epithelial cell layer is lessthan 5×10⁶ cells per mL. In certain embodiments, the density of theepithelial cell layer is less than 10×10⁶ cells per mL. In certainembodiments, the density of the epithelial cell layer is 10×10⁶ cellsper mL. In certain embodiments, the viability of the epithelial tissuelayer is greater than 99% living cells by volume. In certainembodiments, the viability of the epithelial tissue layer is greaterthan 95% living cells by volume. In certain embodiments, the viabilityof the epithelial tissue layer is greater than 90% living cells byvolume. In certain embodiments, the viability of the epithelial tissuelayer is greater than 80% living cells by volume. In certainembodiments, the viability of the epithelial tissue layer is greaterthan 70% living cells by volume. In certain embodiments, the viabilityof the epithelial tissue layer is greater than 60% living cells byvolume. In certain embodiments, the viability of the epithelial tissuelayer is greater than 50% living cells by volume. In certainembodiments, the viability of the epithelial tissue layer is 50-99%living cells by volume. In certain embodiments, this viability ismaintained for at least 8, 12, 24, 48, 72, or 96 hours post-printing. Incertain embodiments, this viability is maintained for at least 1, 2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, or 14 days post-printing.

Non-Cellular Components of Bio-Inks and Cell Layers

Often cells or bio-inks that are bioprinted contain excipients orextrusion compounds that improve their suitability for bioprinting.Examples of extrusion compounds include, but are not limited to gels,hydrogels, peptide hydrogels, amino acid-based gels, surfactant polyols(e.g., Pluronic F-127 or PF-127), thermo-responsive polymers,hyaluronates, alginates, extracellular matrix components (andderivatives thereof), collagens, gelatin, other biocompatible natural orsynthetic polymers, nanofibers, and self-assembling nanofibers. In someembodiments, the extrusion compound contains a synthetic polymer. Insome embodiments, the extrusion compound contains a non-syntheticpolymer that is not normally associated with mammalian tissues. In someembodiments, extrusion compounds are removed after bioprinting byphysical, chemical, or enzymatic means. In some embodiments, thebio-inks of the present disclosure contain 1% or more extrusion compoundby weight. In some embodiments, the intestinal tissue models of thepresent disclosure contain more than 1% extrusion compound by weight. Insome embodiments, the bio-inks of the present disclosure contain lessthan 5% extrusion compound by weight. In some embodiments, the bio-inksof the present disclosure contain between 0%-2% extrusion compound byweight. In some embodiments, the bio-inks of the present disclosurecontain less than 1% extrusion compound by weight. In some embodiments,the intestinal tissue models of the present disclosure contain between0%-5% extrusion compound by weight. In some embodiments, the intestinaltissue models of the present disclosure contain less than 2% extrusioncompound by weight. In some embodiments, the intestinal tissue models ofthe present disclosure contain less than 1% extrusion compound byweight. In some embodiments, the epithelial bio-ink is free fromhydrogel. In some embodiments, the epithelial bio-ink is free fromextrusion compound. In some embodiments, the epithelial bio-ink is freefrom synthetic polymers that are used as excipient or extrusioncompounds. In some embodiments, the intestinal tissue model is free fromsynthetic polymers that are used as excipient or extrusion compounds. Insome embodiments, the epithelial cell layer is free from syntheticpolymers that are used as excipient or extrusion compounds. In someembodiments, the interstitial cell layer is free from synthetic polymersthat are used as excipient or extrusion compounds.

Print Surfaces

Provided herein are intestinal tissue models that are attached to abiocompatible surface. In certain embodiments, the interstitial tissuelayer is printed onto a biocompatible surface. In certain embodiments,the biocompatible surface is a membrane with a pore size of 0.4 μm to 10μm. In certain embodiments, the biocompatible surface has a pore size ofabout 1 μm. In one embodiment, the biocompatible surface comprisespolytetrafluoroethylene membrane with pores of 3 μm in size.

In certain embodiments, the biocompatible surface is coated with acomposition to improve cell adherence or viability. In certainembodiments, the intestinal tissue modules are printed into 6-well,12-well, 24-well, 48-well, 96-well, 384-well or 1546-well plates. Incertain embodiments, the intestinal tissue modules are printed intotissue culture plates with diameters of 60, 100 or 150 mm or more. Insuch embodiments, the surface area of the intestinal tissue model may beas large as the diameter of the wells of the tissue culture places. Incertain embodiments, the intestinal tissue modules are printed intotissue culture flasks or onto microfluidic chips. In certainembodiments, the intestinal tissue models are printed into/ontoTranswell inserts.

In certain embodiments, the intestinal tissue model is cultured inculture medium under static conditions, e.g., in the wells of tissueculture places. In another embodiment, the intestinal tissue model iscultured under non-static, e.g., flow conditions.

In certain embodiments, the intestinal tissue model has a planarsurface. In other embodiments, the surface of the intestinal tissuemodel is non-planar. In other embodiments the surface of the intestinaltissue model is a hydrogel or scaffold material. In other embodiments,the surface of the intestinal tissue model comprises bioprinted tissue.In other embodiments, the surface of the intestinal tissue model is acell monolayer.

Process for Production of Intestinal Tissue Models

This disclosure provides methods and processes for fabricatingintestinal tissue models. In certain embodiments, the product of athree-dimensional, engineered, biological intestinal tissue model isproduced by the process of bioprinting. In certain embodiments, at leastone constituent of the product of a three-dimensional, engineered,biological intestinal tissue model is produced by the process ofbioprinting. In certain embodiments, the process of fabricating athree-dimensional, engineered, biological intestinal tissue model,comprises: preparing an intestinal interstitial bio-ink comprisingmyofibroblasts; preparing an intestinal epithelial bio-ink; depositingthe intestinal interstitial myofibroblast bio-ink and the intestinalepithelial bio-ink such that the intestinal epithelial bio-ink forms alayer on at least one surface of the layer of intestinal interstitialmyofibroblast bio-ink; and maturing the deposited bio-inks in a cellculture media to allow the cells to cohere to form thethree-dimensional, engineered, biological intestinal tissue model. Incertain embodiments, the intestinal interstitial myofibroblast tissuebio-ink forms a tissue layer with an apical and basolateral surface. Incertain embodiments, the intestinal epithelial bio-ink is deposited incontact with the apical surface of the intestinal interstitialmyofibroblast tissue layer. In certain embodiments, the intestinalepithelial bio-ink consists essentially of intestinal epithelial cells.

In one embodiment, continuous deposition is utilized to produce singleor multiple layers mimicking the mucosa and/or epithelium. Additionallayers can be printed by continuous deposition to model the submucosa,muscularis, and serosa. Methods of bioprinting include ink-jetdeposition, extrusion, microsolenoid deposition (MSV), and biodispenseapproaches can also be used to add layers, cellular and/or matrix, withmore refined resolution as thin a one cell layer. A spray approach couldalso be used in combination with other approaches to embed cellularmaterial into a printing surface, tissue, or matrix material.Bioprinting provides an advantage to current in vitro gut models in thatit enables cells to be placed within a precise geometry, and enables theuse of multiple bioink formulations including but not limited to Novogel2.0, 3.0 and collagen. Continuous deposition can incorporate variousbiomaterials into the Novogel formulation and various printing surfacesto promote matrix production and differentiation. The printing methodutilizes various printing surfaces with various pore sizes that can becoated with matrix support material such as collagen. For example,continuous deposition may be used to print a layered tissue onto acollagen-coated printing surface. Hydrogels can also be added to supportbiomaterials or constitute space-reserving regions in which there are nocells.

In certain embodiments, the intestinal epithelial bio-ink consistsessentially of primary intestinal epithelial cells. In certainembodiments, the primary intestinal epithelial cells are isolated fromnon-diseased tissues. In certain embodiments, the cells used to make theintestinal tissue constructs (e.g., primary intestinal epithelial cells,myofibroblasts, immune cells, endothelial cells, etc.) are isolated froma subject with a disease that affects intestinal function, e.g., celiacdisease, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, irritable bowel syndrome,hemorrhoids, diverticulitis, inflammatory bowel disease, microscopiccolitis, lymophocytic colitis, collagenous colitis, endocrine disorders,metabolic disorders, obesity, diabetes, dyslipidemia, colorectal cancer,among others. In certain embodiments, the primary intestinal epithelialcells and/or myofibroblasts are isolated from a subject with celiacdisease. In certain embodiments, the primary intestinal tissueepithelial cells and/or myofibroblasts are isolated from a subject withCrohn's disease. In certain embodiments, the primary intestinal tissueepithelial cells and/or myofibroblasts are isolated from a subject withulcerative colitis. In certain embodiments, the primary intestinaltissue epithelial cells and/or myofibroblasts are isolated from asubject with irritable bowel syndrome. In certain embodiments, theprimary intestinal tissue epithelial cells and/or myofibroblasts areisolated from a subject with hemorrhoids. In certain embodiments, theprimary intestinal tissue epithelial cells and/or myofibroblasts areisolated from a subject with diverticulitis. In certain embodiments, theprimary intestinal tissue epithelial cells and/or myofibroblasts areisolated from a subject with inflammatory bowel disease. In certainembodiments, the primary intestinal tissue epithelial cells and/ormyofibroblasts are isolated from a subject with microscopic colitis. Incertain embodiments, the primary intestinal tissue epithelial cellsand/or myofibroblasts are isolated from a subject with lymophocyticcolitis. In certain embodiments, the primary intestinal tissueepithelial cells and/or myofibroblasts are isolated from a subject withcollageneous colitis. In certain embodiments, the primary intestinaltissue epithelial cells and/or myofibroblasts are isolated from asubject with an endocrine disorder. In certain embodiments, the primaryintestinal tissue epithelial cells and/or myofibroblasts are isolatedfrom a subject with a metabolic disorder. In certain embodiments, theprimary intestinal tissue epithelial cells and/or myofibroblasts areisolated from a subject with obesity. In certain embodiments, theprimary intestinal tissue epithelial cells and/or myofibroblasts areisolated from a subject with diabetes. In certain embodiments, theprimary intestinal tissue epithelial cells and/or myofibroblasts areisolated from a subject with dyslipidemia. In certain embodiments, theprimary intestinal tissue epithelial cells and/or myofibroblasts areisolated from a subject with colorectal cancer.

In certain embodiments, the intestinal epithelial cell lines areobtained from commercial sources such as ATCC, Creative Bioarray, andLonza, include Caco-2, HT-29, HT29-18N2, and HuTu80 cell lines, HIEC-6(normal), FHs 74 Int (normal), Clonetics™ Intestinal Epithelial Cells(Lonza's primary Intestinal Epithelial Cells), and Human SmallIntestinal Epithelial Cells (from Creative Bioarray).

In certain embodiments, the intestinal myofibroblast cell lines areobtained from commercial sources such as ATCC, Creative Bioarray andLonza.

In certain embodiments, the bio-ink further comprises immune cells. Incertain embodiments, the bio-ink comprises lymphoid cells, white bloodcells, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), neutrophils, T-cells,and B-cells. The immune cells may be primary immune cells from a patientbiopsies or cell lines. In certain embodiments, immune cell lines areobtained from commercial sources such as Creative Bioarray,PrecisionForMedicine, BioreclamationIVT, and Lonza, etc.

In certain embodiments, the bio-ink further comprises specializedintestinal epithelial cells such as enterocytes, goblet cells,enteroendocrine cells, paneth cells, microfold cells, cup cells and/ortuft cells. In certain embodiments, specialized intestinal epithelialcell lines are obtained according to methods known in the art. In otherembodiment, the specialized cells are obtained from companies thatisolate such cells on a contract basis.

In certain embodiments, one or more of the bio-inks comprise intestinalcarcinoma cells. In certain embodiments, the intestinal epithelialbio-ink comprises intestinal sarcoma cells. In certain embodiments, theintestinal epithelial bio-ink comprises intestinal lymphoma cells. Incertain embodiments, the intestinal epithelial bio-ink comprisesintestinal adenocarcinoma cells. The cells may be primary cells frompatient biopsies or cell lines. In certain embodiments, carcinoma,sarcoma, lymphoma, and adenocarcinoma cells lines are obtained fromcommercial sources such as ATCC.

In certain embodiments, one or both bio-inks may further comprisespecialized cells such as neuronal cells. In certain embodiments,neuronal cell lines are obtained from commercial sources such asCreative Bioarray.

In certain embodiments, one or both bio-inks may further comprisespecialized cells such as endothelial cells. In certain embodiments,neuronal cell lines are obtained from commercial sources such as ATCC®.

In certain embodiments, one or both bio-inks may further comprisespecialized cells such as smooth muscle cells. In certain embodiments,neuronal cell lines are obtained from commercial sources such as ATCC®.

In certain embodiments, one or both bio-inks may further comprisespecialized cells that may be obtained by directed differentiation ofstem cell populations. The stem cell populations may be primary isolatesor those which are commercially available, e.g., from ATCC. In oneembodiment, the stem cells are iPS cells which are availablecommercially from Lonza, StemGent and iXCells.

In certain embodiments, the epithelial cells are primary cells fromdiseased donors, e.g., subjects having celiac disease, Crohn's disease,ulcerative colitis, irritable bowel syndrome, hemorrhoids ordiverticulitis. Intestinal tissue constructs with cells from diseaseddonors may be used in models of the respective diseases. These diseasemodels may be used to test candidate therapeutic treatments for efficacyin the treatment of the respective diseases.

In certain embodiments, the intestinal epithelial bio-ink is depositedin a monolayer. In certain embodiments, the interstitial myofibroblasttissue bio-ink is deposited in a monolayer. In certain embodiments, thebio-ink further comprises an extrusion compound. In certain embodiments,the layer of intestinal epithelial tissue is deposited in continuouscontact with the layer of intestinal interstitial myofibroblast tissue.In certain embodiments, the intestinal epithelial bio-ink forms a layerthat covers between 50%-100% of the apical surface of the layer ofintestinal interstitial myofibroblast tissue. In certain embodiments,the intestinal epithelial bio-ink forms a layer that covers between70%400% of the apical surface of the layer of intestinal interstitialmyofibroblast tissue. In certain embodiments, the epithelial bio-inkforms a layer that covers between 90%400% of the apical surface of thelayer of the intestinal interstitial myofibroblast tissue. In certainembodiments, the intestinal epithelial bio-ink forms a layer that covers50-90% the apical surface of the layer of intestinal interstitialmyofibroblast tissue.

In certain embodiments, the intestinal tissue model is between 50 and500 μm thick. In certain embodiments, the intestinal tissue model isabout 100 μm thick. In certain embodiments, the intestinal epithelialbio-ink further comprises an extrusion compound. In certain embodiments,the myofibroblasts and epithelial cells are present in a bio-ink at aratio of about 95:5 to about 5:95 myofibroblasts to epithelial cells. Incertain embodiments, the myofibroblasts and epithelial cells are presentin a bio-ink at a ratio of about 75:25 to about 25:75 myofibroblasts toepithelial cells. In certain embodiments, the myofibroblasts andepithelial cells are present in the bio-ink at a ratio of about 60:40 toabout 40:60 myofibroblasts to epithelial cells. In certain embodiments,the myofibroblasts and epithelial cells are present in the bio-ink at aratio of about 50:50 myofibroblasts to epithelial cells. In certainembodiments, the bio-ink further comprises secretory cells.

In certain embodiments, the model is fabricated substantially free ofpre-formed scaffold. In certain embodiments, the myofibroblasts andepithelial cells are mammalian cells. In certain embodiments, either ofthe myofibroblast bio-ink or epithelial bio-ink forms a planar layerafter deposition. In certain embodiments, the intestinal tissue model isof a uniform thickness. In certain embodiments, the myofibroblastbio-ink is deposited onto a biocompatible membrane. In certainembodiments, the myofibroblast bio-ink is deposited onto a biocompatiblemembrane with a pore size greater than 0.4 μm. In certain embodiments,the myofibroblast bio-ink is deposited onto a biocompatible membranewith a pore size of about 1 um. In certain embodiments, thethree-dimensional, engineered, biological intestinal tissue models aredeposited to form an array.

In certain embodiments, the myofibroblast bio-ink is between 30%-100%living cells by volume. In certain embodiments, the myofibroblastbio-ink is between 70%-100% living cells by volume. In certainembodiments, the myofibroblast bio-ink is between 90%-100% living cellsby volume. In certain embodiments, the myofibroblast bio-ink isdeposited by extrusion bioprinting. In certain embodiments, theepithelial bio-ink is deposited by ink-jet bioprinting. In certainembodiments, the myofibroblast bio-ink is not deposited by ink-jetbioprinting. In certain embodiments, any layer of the intestinal tissuemodel is viable in in vitro culture in culture after 3 days. In certainembodiments, any layer of the intestinal tissue model is viable in invitro culture after 10 days.

In certain embodiments, the 3D intestinal tissue models disclosed hereinare produced by an additive manufacturing process. The additivemanufacturing process for 3D intestinal tissue models herein allowscustomized fabrication of 3D intestinal tissue models for in vitropurposes. This is significant in that the tissues are fabricated due toa user specified design. In certain embodiments, the 3D intestinaltissue models contain only the cells that the user specifies. In certainembodiments, the 3D intestinal tissue models contain only the cell typesthat the user specifies. In certain embodiments, the 3D intestinaltissue models contain only the number of cells or concentration of cellsthat the user specifies. In certain embodiments, the 3D intestinaltissue models contain cells that have been treated with a smallmolecule, therapeutic molecule, or therapeutic substance before orduring fabrication. A therapeutic molecule or substance being anymolecule intended to treat a disease or elicit a biological response. Incertain embodiments, the 3D intestinal tissue models containbiocompatible or tissue culture plastics, biocompatible syntheticpolymers, cross linkable gels, reversibly cross-linked gels and othernon-cellular constituents.

Maturation of Intestinal Tissue Models

In certain embodiments, the intestinal tissue models of the presentdisclosure are matured for a certain amount of time after bioprinting.In certain embodiments, the models are matured for 1-24 hours beforeuse, for example, at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16,18, 24 hours or more before use. In certain embodiments, the models arematured for 1-30 days before use, for example, at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24,25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 days or more before use. In some embodiments,shipment or transfer of the tissues is a use. In certain embodiments,the interstitial myofibroblast layer of the intestinal tissue model ofthe present disclosure is matured for a certain amount of time afterbioprinting before addition of the epithelial layer. In certainembodiments, the interstitial myofibroblast layer is matured for 1-24hours before use, for example, at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,11, 12, 16, 18, 24 hours or more before use. In certain embodiments, theinterstitial myofibroblast layer is matured for 1-30 days before use,for example, at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 days or morebefore use. In some embodiments, shipment or transfer of the tissues isa use. In some embodiments, the epithelial layer is bioprinted onto theinterstitial myofibroblast layer immediately after bioprinting of theinterstitial myofibroblast layer or, for example, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 18, 24 hours after bioprinting of the interstitialmyofibroblast layer. In some embodiments, shipment or transfer of thetissues is a use. In some embodiments, the epithelial layer isbioprinted onto the interstitial myofibroblast layer within 1-30 daysafter bioprinting of the interstitial myofibroblast layer, for example1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 days after bioprinting of theinterstitial myofibroblast layer.

In some embodiments, the intestinal tissue models are matured in cellculture media under static conditions with or without replacement of thecell culture media on a defined schedule. In other embodiments, theintestinal tissue models are matured in cell culture media undernon-static conditions. Non-static conditions include flow of cellculture media across the apical and/or basolateral surface of theintestinal tissue model.

Any mammalian tissue culture media may be used to culture the intestinaltissue models. Examples include BGJb, BME, Brinster's BMOC-3, CMRL,CO2-Independent Medium, DMEM Media, DMEM/F-12 Media, F-10 NutrientMixture, F-12 Nutrient Mixture, Glasgow (G-MEM), Improved MEM, Iscove's(IMDM), Leibovitz's L-15, McCoy's 5A, MCDB 131, Media 199, MinimumEssential Media (MEM), Modified Eagle Medium (MEM), Opti-MEM® I,Fischer's Medium, MEM Rega-3, NCTC-135 Medium, RPMI Medium 1640,Waymouth's MB 752/1, and Williams' Media E (ThermoFisher Scientific,Grand Island, N.Y.).

Uses of the Tissue Constructs

The intestinal tissue constructs described herein can be utilized formultiple applications. In one embodiment, the tissue barrier can beutilized for toxicology and ADME applications. In one embodiment,functional features of the tissue constructs include establishment of abarrier and demonstrating permeability/absorption (as evidenced by TEERand Lucifer yellow permeability). These features allow for permeabilitykinetics (Papp) and influx/efflux (ab, ba) studies. In anotherembodiment, the investigation of active transport and metabolism via keytransporters and metabolic enzymes respectively can be performed viawell-based assays or through detection of substrates and theirmetabolites by mass spectrometry. These same techniques can be used toassess the mechanism of active transport and metabolism of various drugsand applied compounds. Transport kinetic, efflux rate and thepermeability coefficient of a test substance could therefore be utilizedfor correlation to FDA-recommended reference drugs. Through barrierfunction and permeability kinetics, the tissue constructs may be used topredict the absorption of orally delivered compounds or predict whetherthere is active transport of compounds via intestinal transporterssimilar to native tissue, predict the ability of compounds to disruptthe intestinal barrier and/or induce intestinal inflammation, and/orpredict the efficacy of compounds to modulate inflammation. In anotherembodiment, mucosal barrier development and effects of applied compoundson barrier function may also be assessed by mucus secretion (bydetecting MUC2). In another embodiment, lipid metabolism, absorption,and transport may be modeled by detecting chylomicron secretion (e.g.,via apoB-48 ELISA) and triglyceride synthesis CC oleate, D20) asendpoints. In another embodiment, enteroendocrine function may beevaluated by detection of gut peptides secretion in response to nutrientstimulation (e.g., GLP-1, PYY, CCK, and/or SST). Movement or response tomovement such as peristalsis can be modeled with addition of a flowcomponent, flow or cell-based movement, and/or through the addition ofother cell types like smooth muscle cells and neurons.

A major application of the tissue constructs disclosed herein comprisingimmune cells is the modeling of inflammation and inflammatory diseases,as well as the impact of immune modulation on cancer. In one embodiment,the immune cells are myeloid or lymphoid cells. In another embodiment,the disease models are compared side by side to normal tissue models,e.g., intestinal tissue models lacking immune cells, comprising immunecells but not stimulated to activate the immune cells (quiescent), orlacking immune cells and stimulated with cytokines to mimic an immuneresponse. In this embodiment, the tissue constructs are useful forevaluation of inflammation and immune responses to diseases such asinflammatory bowel disease (IBD), ulcerative colitis, and Crohn'sdisease. Tissue constructs comprising immune cells may also be used tostudy acute responses, for example enteritis, or chronic responses suchas inflammatory bowel disease. Tissue constructs comprising immune cellsmay also be used to model injury and recovery including acute,subchronic, or chronic dosing of candidate pharmaceutical compounds ortherapies. In another embodiment, the tissue constructs comprisingimmune cells are used to evaluate wound healing and fibrosis. Fibroticscar formation, for example, is a common complication of IBD, ulcerativecolitis and Crohn's disease, but is much more prevalent in Crohn'sdisease. Furthermore, the tissue constructs comprising immune cells maybe used to modeling microbial/microbiome interactions (pathenogenicmicrobes like Clostridium difficile or commensal bacteria), orintestinal infection (bacterial or viral). The 3D nature of the tissueconstructs allow for enhanced observation of pathogen invasiveness andtranslocation. The tissue constructs comprising immune cells may bestimulated by cytokines (e.g. IL-17), bacterial components or products,chemical disruption to generate a wound (e.g. dextran sodium sulfateinduced colitis), physical disruption (e.g. scraping) that modelsintestinal injury, or chemical disruption (e.g. 2,4,6-Trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid induced IBD). In one embodiment, the tissues are treatedsubsequently with candidate pharmaceutical agents or treatments toreverse or control the inflammatory effects. In one embodiment, theimpact of antagonists, such as anti-TNF alpha, is followed forcorrection of injured phenotype. Inflammatory signals that may bedetected include the release of cytokines (e.g. IL-8, TNF alpha, IL-4,IL-19, IL-13, IL-17, and/or IFN-gamma), antimicrobial peptides (e.g.beta defensin, lysozymes, and/or sIgA), endocrine products such assomatostatin, activation of inflammatory pathways (e.g. JAK/STAT, and/orNFkB), evaluation of a barrier disruption in response to inflammation(histology, TEER, Lucifer yellow, Ussing chamber, and/or otherwell-based assays), evaluation of mucus secretion or gene regulation orloss of goblet cells, evaluating the impact on homeostatic epithelialregulation, ion, nutrient and water transport, bile reabsorption,measuring proliferation, cytotoxicity, tissue damage, or apoptosis(Caspase 8 or Tunel) or autophagy or re-epithelialization of woundedarea, and expression of key markers and receptors upregulated inresponse to stimulation (TLRs, Myd99, HNF4alpha, MLCK, Muc2, TFF3). Forany of the phenotypes described, the 3D intestinal models may be used todemonstrate the kinetics and magnitude of onset as well as recovery fromperturbation. For example, one can dose the tissues with a therapeuticagent and measure the kinetics of absorption in parallel with thekinetics of onset of tissue damage, and then remove the test agent andmeasure the kinetics of clearance of the molecule in the tissue and ofrecovery from damage. Analysis of these parameters may enable theprediction of appropriate dosing levels and dosing schedule forcompounds entering the clinic.

The intestinal tissue models may also be used in a method of assessingthe ability of a candidate therapeutic agent to reverse, reduce, induceor prevent an intestinal disorder or injury, the method comprising:

(a) contacting the intestinal tissue model or the non-human animal modelwith the candidate therapeutic agent, wherein the intestinal tissuemodel has a phenotype of an intestinal disorder or injury;

(b) determining the viability or functionality of the intestinal tissuecells; and

(c) assessing the ability of the candidate therapeutic agent to reverse,reduce or prevent an intestinal disorder or injury based on thedetermined viability or functionality of the intestinal tissue cellscompared to a control intestinal tissue model that has not beencontacted with the candidate therapeutic agent.

In some embodiments, the phenotype of an intestinal disorder or injuryis induced by contacting the intestinal tissue model with a treatment,compound, or infectious agent that gives rise to the phenotype. In someembodiments, the phenotype of an intestinal disorder or injury is thepresence of tumor(s), tumor fragment(s), tumor cells, or immortalizedcells in the intestinal tissue model. In some embodiments, the abilityof a candidate therapeutic agent to reverse, reduce, induce or preventan intestinal disorder or injury is reduced tumor(s), tumor fragment(s),tumor cells, or immortalized cells invasion or metastasis.

The intestinal tissue models may also be used in a method of assessingthe ability of a candidate therapeutic agent to reverse, reduce, induceor prevent an intestinal disorder or injury, the method comprising:

(a) contacting the intestinal tissue model or the non-human animal modelwith the candidate therapeutic agent;

(b) determining the viability or functionality of the intestinal tissuecells; and

(c) assessing the ability of the candidate therapeutic agent to reverse,reduce or prevent an intestinal disorder or injury based on thedetermined viability or functionality of the intestinal tissue cellscompared to a control intestinal tissue model that has not beencontacted with the candidate therapeutic agent.

In one embodiment, the phenotype of an intestinal disorder or injury isinduced by contacting the intestinal tissue model with a treatment,compound, or infectious agent that gives rise to the phenotype. Examplesof such treatments include radiation treatment and physical injury.Examples of compounds include any compounds known to be injurious tointestinal tissue including NSAIDs such as aspirin, ibuprophen, naproxensodium, celecoxib, diclofenac, diflunisal, etodolac, fenoprofen,flurbirofen, indomethacin, ketoprofen, ketorolac, mefenamic acid,meloxicam, nabumetone, oxaprozin, piroxicam, sulindac and tolmetin.Examples of infectious agents include Salmonella, Staphylococcus aureus,Bacillus cereus, Clostridium, Campylobacter, Yersinia, vibrio, Giardialamblia, intestinal worms, and Clostridium difficile.

In some embodiments, the impact of candidate chemotherapy or immunemodulating agents may be investigated. In some embodiments, theintestinal tissue model comprises tumor cells and a candidatetherapeutic agent or immune modulator for the treatment of the tumor iscontacted with the intestinal tissue model.

In other embodiments, the intestinal tissue model is used in a method tostudy the microbiome of the intestine by contacting the intestinaltissue model with organisms of the intestinal microbiome and determiningthe viability or functionality of the intestinal tissue cells comparedto a control intestinal tissue model that has not been contacted withthe organisms. In one embodiment, the intestinal tissue model comprisesdiseased intestinal tissue cells. In other embodiments, the intestinaltissue model comprises normal intestinal tissue cells. In furtherembodiments, the intestinal tissue models are contacted with candidatetherapeutic agents or treatments to evaluate the impact of thetherapeutic agents or treatments on the intestinal microbiome.

In some embodiments, the intestinal tissue models and arrays disclosedherein are for use in in vitro assays. In some embodiments, an “assay”is a procedure for testing or measuring the presence or activity of asubstance (e.g., a chemical, molecule, biochemical, drug, etc.) in anorganic or biologic sample (e.g., cell aggregate, tissue, organ,organism, etc.). In further embodiments, assays include qualitativeassays and quantitative assays. In still further embodiments, aquantitative assay measures the amount of a substance such as a chemicalor biomolecule in a sample.

In various embodiments, the intestinal tissue models and arrays are foruse in, by way of non-limiting example, image-based assays, measurementof secreted proteins, expression of markers, and production of proteinsor mRNAs. In various further embodiments, the intestinal tissue modelsand arrays are for use in assays to detect or measure one or more of:molecular binding (including radioligand binding), molecular uptake,activity (e.g., enzymatic activity and receptor activity, metaboliteproduction etc.), gene expression, protein expression, proteinmodifications (non-limiting examples include: phosphorylation,ubiquitination, acetylation, glycosylation, lipidation, etc.), receptoragonism, receptor antagonism, cell signaling, apoptosis,chemosensitivity, transfection, cell migration, chemotaxis, cellviability, cell proliferation, safety, efficacy, metabolism, toxicity,infectivity, immune activation, immune modulation, and abuse liability.In various embodiments, the intestinal tissue models are for toxicology,pharmaceutical or toxicity testing.

In some embodiments, the intestinal tissue models and arrays are for usein immunoassays. Immunoassays include, for example, flow cytometry, highthroughput or low throughput image analysis, immunoprecipitation,radio-immunoassay (MA), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA),western blot, homogenous assays, such as AlphaLISA™ and relatedtechnologies that rely on time resolved fluorescence or fluorescenceresonance energy transfer (FRET). In further embodiments, immunoassaysare competitive immunoassays or noncompetitive immunoassays. In acompetitive immunoassay, for example, the antigen in a sample competeswith labeled antigen to bind with antibodies and the amount of labeledantigen bound to the antibody site is then measured. In a noncompetitiveimmunoassay (also referred to as a “sandwich assay”), for example,antigen in a sample is bound to an antibody site; subsequently, labeledantibody is bound to the antigen and the amount of labeled antibody onthe site is then measured.

In some embodiments, the intestinal tissue models and arrays are for usein ELISA. In further embodiments, an ELISA is a biochemical techniqueused to detect the presence of an antibody or an antigen in a sample. InELISA, for example, at least one antibody with specificity for aparticular antigen is utilized. By way of further example, a sample withan unknown amount of antigen is immobilized on a solid support (e.g., apolystyrene microtiter plate) either non-specifically (via adsorption tothe surface) or specifically (via capture by another antibody specificto the same antigen, in a “sandwich” ELISA). By way of still furtherexample, after the antigen is immobilized, the detection antibody isadded, forming a complex with the antigen. The detection antibody is,for example, covalently linked to an enzyme, or is itself detected by asecondary antibody that is linked to an enzyme through bioconjugation.

In other embodiments, the intestinal tissue models are subject to massspectrometry analysis to determine the components of the intestinaltissue models. Such components include metabolites of candidatetherapeutic treatments, proteins, cytokines, RNA, DNA, and the like.

For example, in some embodiments, an array, microarray, or chip ofcells, multicellular aggregates, or tissues is used for drug screeningor drug discovery. In further embodiments, an array, microarray, or chipof tissues is used as part of a kit for drug screening or drugdiscovery. In some embodiments, each intestinal tissue model existswithin a well of a biocompatible multi-well container, wherein thecontainer is compatible with one or more automated drug screeningprocedures and/or devices. In further embodiments, automated drugscreening procedures and/or devices include any suitable procedure ordevice that is computer or robot-assisted.

In further embodiments, arrays for drug screening assays or drugdiscovery assays are used to research or develop drugs potentiallyuseful in any therapeutic area. In still further embodiments, suitabletherapeutic areas include, by way of non-limiting examples, infectiousdisease, hematology, oncology, pediatrics, gastroenterology, paincontrol, vaccines, wound healing, physiology, pharmacology, genetherapy, toxicology, toxicity, and immunology.

In some embodiments, the intestinal tissue models and arrays are for usein cell-based screening. In further embodiments, the cell-basedscreening is for one or more infectious diseases such as viral, fungal,bacterial or parasitic infection. In further embodiments, the cell-basedscreening is for colon cancer.

In some embodiments, the constructs or arrays thereof are for use inassessing the performance of biologics, including antibodies, mammaliancells, bacteria, biologically-active proteins, hormones, peptides, smallmolecules etc. In other embodiments, the intestinal tissue models orarrays thereof are useful in the study of cell-cell and cell-tissueinteractions between the mammalian intestinal tissue models comprisingthe construct and one or more additional cell types, including but notlimited to pathogen-bearing cells, living pathogenic cells, cancercells, immune cells, blood cells, stem/progenitor cells, orgenetically-manipulated cells.

In some embodiments, the array comprises intestinal tissue models andadditional tissue constructs. In further embodiments, the intestinaltissue construct is in direct contact with an additional tissueconstruct on one or more surfaces. In still further embodiments, theintestinal tissue model is connected to one or more additional tissuesconstructs or cells via a fluid path or common fluid reservoir. In stillfurther embodiments, the liquid media that contacts the engineeredintestinal tissue construct contains living mammalian cells such asimmune cells, blood-derived cells, or tumor-derived cells. In otherembodiments, the liquid media that contacts the intestinal tissuecontains an infectious agent such as bacteria, fungi, viruses,parasites, or other pathogens.

In certain embodiments, the three-dimensional, engineered, bioprinted,biological intestinal tissue model comprises a layer of intestinalinterstitial myofibroblasts and a layer of intestinal epithelial tissue.In other embodiments, at least one of the layer of intestinalinterstitial myofibroblasts and layer of intestinal epithelial tissuecomprises additional cell types such as myeloid cells, lymphoidcells/white blood cells, enteroendocrine cells, goblet cells, Panethcells, M cells, neuronal cells, smooth muscle cells, endothelial cellsspecialized cells derived from directed differentiation of iPS cellsand/or primary cells or iPS cells from diseased donors (e.g., fromsubjects having IBD, colitis or Crohn's disease).

In one embodiment, the intestinal tissue construct may be used to testcandidate drugs for treating intestinal fibrosis and fibrotic scarformation. Methods for detecting intestinal fibrosis and scar formationare reviewed by, for example, Florian Rieder, Sean Kessler, Miguel Sans,and Claudio Fiocchicorresponding (2012). Animal models of intestinalfibrosis: new tools for the understanding of pathogenesis and therapy ofhuman disease. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 303(7):G786-G801.

The intestinal tissue construct may also be used in a method of testingcandidate therapeutic agents for intestinal wound healing. In thisembodiment, the intestinal tissue construct is damaged (e.g., cut,bisected, punched, punctured, abraded, scraped, exposed to a chemicalthat causes damage, etc.), the damaged tissue construct is treated withthe candidate therapeutic agent, and evidence of healing is detectedcompared to that of a control construct that has not been contacted withthe candidate therapeutic agent. In another embodiment, the damagingagent itself is simply removed, and the kinetics and degree of healingis compared to that of a control construct that has not been previouslydamaged.

The intestinal tissue construct may also be used to modelmicrobial/microbiome interactions (pathogenic or commensal bacteria),and intestinal infection (bacterial or viral).

The intestinal tissue construct may also be used to model peristalsiswith the addition of a flow component and/or the inclusion of smoothmuscle cells and neurons. In this embodiment, the intestinal tissueconstruct is subject to flow of media in a bioreactor.

In some embodiments, the intestinal tissue model is at least 2 celllayers thick. In some embodiments, the intestinal tissue model is 2 ormore cell layers thick. In some embodiments, where the intestinalepithelial cells do not completely cover the intestinal interstitialtissue, the uncovered interstitial tissue may be as little as one celllayer thick in the uncovered area. Likewise, where the interstitialtissue layer does not completely cover the print surface, the coveringintestinal epithelial cell layer may be as little as one cell layerthick on the print surface without the intestinal interstitial tissue.

In some embodiments, the mean thickness of the intestinal tissue modelis at least 20 μm. In some embodiments, the mean thickness of theintestinal tissue model is at least 100 μm. In some embodiments, themean thickness of the intestinal tissue model is at least 200 μm. Insome embodiments, the mean thickness of the intestinal tissue model isat least 300 μm. In some embodiments, the mean thickness of theintestinal tissue model is at least 400 μm. In some embodiments, themean thickness of the intestinal tissue model is at least 500 μm. Insome embodiments, the mean thickness of the intestinal tissue model isat least 600 μm. In some embodiments, the mean thickness of theintestinal tissue model is at least 700 μm. In some embodiments, themean thickness of the intestinal tissue model is at least 800 μm. Insome embodiments, the mean thickness of the intestinal tissue model isat least 900 μm. In some embodiments, the mean thickness of theintestinal tissue model is at least 1000 μm. In some embodiments, themean thickness of the intestinal tissue model is between 50 μm and 3000μm. In some embodiments, the mean thickness of the intestinal tissuemodel is between 75 μm and 1000 μm. In some embodiments, the meanthickness of the intestinal tissue model is between 100 μm and 1000 μm.In some embodiments, the mean thickness of the intestinal tissue modelis between 200 μm and 1000 μm. In some embodiments, the mean thicknessof the intestinal tissue model is between 500 μm and 1000 μm. In someembodiments, the mean thickness of the intestinal tissue model isbetween 50 μm and 500 μm. In some embodiments, the mean thickness of theintestinal tissue model is between 50 μm and 300 μm. In someembodiments, the mean thickness of the intestinal tissue model isbetween 50 μm and 200 μm. In some embodiments, the mean thickness of theintestinal tissue model is between 50 μm and 150 μm. In someembodiments, the mean thickness of the intestinal tissue model isbetween 50 μm and 125 μm. In some embodiments, the mean thickness of theintestinal tissue model is between 75 μm and 100 μm.

In some embodiments, the print surface area is between 0.01 cm² and 100cm². The print surface may be the wells of a microtiter plate which mayrange from 6 to 384 wells or more. In some embodiments, the printsurface area is 2 cm² for a 24 well plate.

The potential toxic agent is anything that may have an effect on thestructure or function of intestinal tissue. In some embodiments, thepotential toxic agent is a toxin, a therapeutic agent, an antimicrobialagent, a metal, a microorganisim (e.g., bacteria, virus, parasite,fungus), or an environmental agent. In other embodiments, the potentialtoxic agent is an antiviral, an analgesic agent, an antidepressantagent, a diuretic agent, or a proton pump inhibitor.

In other embodiments, the potential toxic agent is a cytokine, achemokine, a small molecule drug, a large molecule drug, a protein or apeptide.

In other embodiments, the potential toxic agent is a chemotherapeuticagent which is an aromatase inhibitor; an anti-estrogen; ananti-androgen; a gonadorelin agonist; a topoisomerase I inhibitor; atopoisomerase II inhibitor; a microtubule active agent; an alkylatingagent; a retinoid, a carontenoid, or a tocopherol; a cyclooxygenaseinhibitor; an MMP inhibitor; an mTOR inhibitor; a receptor tyrosinekinase (RTK) inhibitor, a serine/threonine kinase inhibitor, anantimetabolite; a platin compound; a methionine aminopeptidaseinhibitor; a bisphosphonate; an antiproliferative antibody; a heparanaseinhibitor; an inhibitor of Ras oncogenic isoforms; a telomeraseinhibitor; a proteasome inhibitor; a compound used in the treatment ofhematologic malignancies; a Flt-3 inhibitor; an Hsp90 inhibitor; akinesin spindle protein inhibitor; a MEK inhibitor; an antitumorantibiotic; a nitrosourea; a compound targeting/decreasing protein orlipid kinase activity, a compound targeting/decreasing protein or lipidphosphatase activity, or an anti-angiogenic compound. In otherembodiments, the potential toxic agent is a chemotherapeutic agent whichis daunorubicin, adriamycin, Ara-C, VP-16, teniposide, mitoxantrone,idarubicin, cisplatin, carboplatinum, PKC412, 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP),fludarabine phosphate, octreotide, SOM230, FTY720, 6-thioguanine,cladribine, 6-mercaptopurine, pentostatin, hydroxyurea,2-hydroxy-1H-isoindole-1,3-dione derivatives,1-(4-chloroanilino)-4-(4-pyridylmethyl)phthalazine,1-(4-chloroanilino)-4-(4-pyridylmethyl)phthalazine succinate,angiostatin, endostatin, anthranilic acid amides, ZD4190, ZD6474,SU5416, SU6668, bevacizumab, rhuMAb, rhuFab, macugon, FLT-4 inhibitors,FLT-3 inhibitors, VEGFR-2 IgGI antibody, RPI 4610, bevacizumab, porfimersodium, anecortave, triamcinolone, hydrocortisone,11-α-epihydrocotisone, cortex olone, 17a-hydroxyprogesterone,corticosterone, desoxycorticosterone, testosterone, estrone,dexamethasone, fluocinolone, a plant alkaloid, a hormonal compoundand/or antagonist, a biological response modifier, such as a lymphokineor interferon, an antisense oligonucleotide or oligonucleotidederivative, shRNA, siRNA, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In other embodiments, the potential toxic agent is ibuprofen,acetaminophen, lithium, acyclovir, amphotericin B, and aminoglycoside, abeta lactams, foscavir, ganciclovir, pentamidine, a quinolone, asulfonamide, vancomycin, rifampin, adefovir, indinavir, didofovir,tenofovir, methotrexate, lansoprazole, omeprazole, pantopraxole,allopurinol, phenytoin, ifosfamide, gentamycin, or zoledronate.

In some embodiments, the potential toxic agent is radiation. In someembodiments, radiation may include X-rays, gamma rays, UV, and others.In some embodiments, radiation is used alone or in combination withanother toxic agent or agents. In some embodiments, the radiation mayinclude photon radiotherapy, particle beam radiation therapy, othertypes of radiotherapies, and combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the toxic agent is dissolved in a biocompatiblesolvent. When the potential toxic agent is water insoluble, thepotential toxic agent may be dissolved with a polar, aprotic organicsolvent such as dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) or dimethyl formamide (DMF)and then diluted with a aqueous solution such as 9 g/L sodium chloride(saline), in distilled water, aqueous Tween, culture media, or anotherbiocompatible solvent.

In some embodiments, the toxic agent is a modulator of the immunesystem. In some embodiments, immune modulators may include toll-likereceptor (TLR) agonists like LPS or imiquimod, TLR antagonists,steroids, or checkpoint inhibitors like anti-PD1, anti-PDL1, oranti-CTLA4.

In some embodiments, the viability or functionality of the intestinalepithelial cells is determined by measuring an indicator of metabolicactivity. In some embodiments, metabolic activity may be measured byalamarBlue™ Assay (Thermo Fisher, Carslbad, Calif.), lactatedehydrogenase (LDH) activity assay, or another assay. In someembodiments, the indicator of metabolic activity is resazurin reductionor tetrazolium salt reduction in the intestinal tissue model compared toa control. In some embodiments, resazurin reduction is measured usingthe alamar blue assay (Rampersad, S. N., (2012), Multiple applicationsof alamar blue as an indicator of metabolic function and cellular healthin cell viability bioassays. Sensors 12(9): 12347-12360). In someembodiments, the tetrazolium salts include3-(4,5-dimethyl)thiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT);sodium 3′-[1-phenylamino)-carbonyl]-3,4-tetrazolium]-bis(4-methoxy-6-nitrobenzene) sulfonic acid hydrate (XTT);4-[3-(4-iodophenyl)-2-(4-nitrophenyl)-2H-5-tetrazolio]-1,3-benzenedisulfonate, water-soluble tetrazolium salt (WST-1); and others(Rampersad, 2012).

In some embodiments, the viability or functionality of the intestinalepithelial cells is determined by measuring lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)activity, gamma glutamyl-transferase (GGT) activity, protease activity,ATP utilization, ATP level and changes thereto, glucose uptake activity,sodium-glucose co-transporter-1 (SGLT1) activity, secretion of anyintestinal specific proteins or peptides, or RNA expression compared toa control. In some embodiment, the viability or functionality of theintestinal epithelial cells is determined by measuring alkalinephosphatase activity or caspase activity. In some embodiments, proteaseactivity is measured by measuring caspase activity using syntheticpeptide substrates (Kumar (2004) Chapter 2: Measurement of caspaseactivity in cells undergoing apoptosis. Methods in Molecular Biology,vol. 228. Totowa, N.J.: Humana Press Inc.). In some embodiments,intracellular ATP is measured using an ATP assay kit (Weng, Z., Patel,A. B., Panagiotidou, S., and Theoharides, T. C. (2015). The novelflavone tetramethoxyluteolin is a potent inhibitor of human mast cells.J Allergy Clin Immunol 135(4), 1044-1052). One commercially availablekit for measuring ATP levels is CellTiter-Glo® available from PromegaCorporation.

In other embodiments, the viability or functionality of the intestinalepithelial cells is determined by measuring a transport moleculeactivity in the model compared to a control. In other embodiments, thetransport molecule activity is excretion and/or uptake of at least onemacromolecule. In other embodiments, the macromolecule is collagen.

In other embodiments, the viability or functionality of the epithelialcells is determined by identifying regeneration of the epithelial cellscompared to a control. In one embodiment, regeneration is identified byvisually inspecting the epithelial cells and identifying an increase inthe number of viable cells.

In other embodiments, the viability or functionality of the epithelialcells is determined by measuring the trans-epithelial electricalresistance (TEER) or the passive permeability of the intestinal tissuemodel compared to a control.

In other embodiments, the viability or functionality of the intestinalepithelial cells is determined by measuring alterations to ion exchange,alterations to pH, alterations to acid/base balance, alterations tobarrier function, or alterations in physiology, alterations inpathology, alterations to transport of molecules, alterations tosodium-glucose cotransporter-1 (SGLT1) activity, amounts of interstitialfibrotic tissue, or regeneration of the intestinal tissue model comparedto a control.

In other embodiments, the viability or functionality of the intestinalepithelial cells is determined by measuring amounts of intestinalfibrotic tissue compared to a control. In some embodiments, intestinalfibrotic tissue is measured using Trichrome or Alician blue/PAS fibrosismeasurement, collagen III immunohistochemistry, Sirius Red staining, oranother type of assay (Farris A. B., Adams C. D., Brousaides N., DellaPelle P. A., Collins A. B., Moradi E., Smith R. N., Grimm P. C., andColvin R. B. (2011). Morphometric and visual evaluation of fibrosis inrenal biopsies. J Am Soc Nephrol 22(1), 176-86). In some embodiments,the viability or functionality of the intestinal epithelial cells ismeasured over time.

In some embodiments, the intestinal tissue model is contacted first withthe potential toxic agent and then with the candidate therapeutic agent.In other embodiments, the intestinal tissue model is contacted firstwith the candidate therapeutic agent and then with the potential toxicagent. In some embodiments, the intestinal tissue model has beencultured in a cell culture medium prior to being contacted with thecandidate therapeutic agent and the potential toxic agent. In someembodiments, the intestinal tissue model has been cultured for at least3 days in the cell culture medium.

Also provided are methods of assessing the effect of an agent onintestinal function, the method comprising contacting the agent with athree-dimensional, engineered, bioprinted, biological intestinal tissuemodel and measuring the effect of the agent on intestinal function theviability or functionality of the intestinal epithelial cells. In someembodiments, the three-dimensional, engineered, bioprinted, biologicalintestinal tissue model comprises a layer of myofibroblast tissue; and alayer of epithelial tissue, the epithelial tissue comprising intestinalepithelial cells; provided that the myofibroblast tissue comprises anbio-ink, the epithelial tissue comprises an epithelial bio-ink, and forma three-dimensional, engineered, biological intestinal tissue model.

Also provided is a method of assessing the effect of a potential toxicagent on intestinal function, the method comprising:

(a) contacting the agent with the three-dimensional, engineered,bioprinted, biological intestinal tissue model; and

(b) measuring the effect of the agent on the viability or functionalityof the intestinal tissue model cells.

In some embodiments, provided is a method to reverse or reduce injury bya toxic agent, and the intestinal tissue model is contacted first withthe toxic agent and then the potential toxic agent is removed.

Also provided is a method of assessing the kinetics of intestinalabsorption of an agent, the method comprising:

(a) contacting the agent with the three-dimensional, engineered,bioprinted, biological intestinal tissue model; and

(b) measuring the kinetics of absorption by the intestinal tissue model.

Also provided is method of predicting the effective dosing concentrationand dosing schedule of a candidate therapeutic agent, the methodcomprising:

(a) contacting varying concentrations or amounts of the agent with thethree-dimensional, engineered, bioprinted, biological intestinal tissuemodel; and

(b) measuring the effect of the agent on the viability or functionalityof the intestinal tissue model cells over time; and

(c) measuring the recovery of the intestinal tissue model cells overtime to determine the minimum timing between doses that provideefficacy.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises:

(d) removing the agent; and

(e) assessing whether the absence of the agent results in improvedviability or functionality of the intestinal tissue model.

The disclosure herein includes business methods. In some embodiments,the speed and scalability of the techniques and methods disclosed hereinare utilized to design, build, and operate industrial and/or commercialfacilities for production of intestinal tissue models for use incell-based tools for research and development, such as in vitro assays.In further embodiments, the intestinal tissue models and arrays thereofare produced, stored, distributed, marketed, advertised, and sold as,for example, cellular arrays (e.g., microarrays or chips), tissue arrays(e.g., microarrays or chips), and kits for biological assays andhigh-throughput drug screening. In other embodiments, the engineeredintestinal tissue models and arrays thereof are produced and utilized toconduct biological assays and/or drug screening as a service.

Validation

The ideal engineered intestinal tissue models are fully human andmulticellular, comprising intestinal epithelial cells and intestinalmyofibroblasts, and optionally additional cells such as myeloid cells.Moreover, engineered intestinal tissues manifest one or more of thefollowing characteristics:

-   -   Correct tissue structure as evidenced by H&E staining showing        bi-layered structure.    -   Immunohistochemistry for epithelial cell markers (CK19),        myofibroblast markers (vimentin), and myeloid cell markers        (CD14, CD68 and CD206) as well as markers of any other        specialized cell type incorporated into the tissue such as        lymphoid immune cells (CD4, CD8, CD19, etc.), endothelial cells        (CD31) or neurons.    -   Barrier function as evidenced by well-based TEER studies and/or        permeability/adsorption by Lucifer yellow.    -   Cytokine production (e.g. IL-1, IL-6 and TNFα measured, e.g., by        ELISA).    -   Epithelial tight junction formation (e.g. E-Cadherin, ZO-1),        brush border formation (villin), key transporter expression        (e.g. P-gp/MDR1, BCRP), and basement membrane formation (e.g.        collagen IV).    -   Transporter/metabolic enzyme activity (e.g.: P-gp and CYP3A4).    -   Inducible cytokine production following stimulation (e.g., with        LPS).    -   Sustainability in culture and viability (e.g. histology, MTT or        Alamar Blue).    -   Mucus production (e.g. MUC2, e.g. by ELISA), presence of goblet        cells.    -   Endocrine peptide secretion (e.g. GLP-1, PYY, CCK), presence of        enteroendocrine cells.    -   Lipid absorption/transport (e.g. chylomicron secretion, apoB-48,        e.g., by ELISA), triglyceride synthesis (e.g. ¹³C oleate, D₂O).    -   Fibrotic scar formation by bisecting/cutting/punching/treating        with a chemical damage agent identified by immunohistochemistry        (IHC) staining in addition to differentiation and migration        (e.g. CK19, vimentin).    -   Inducible collagen or other fibrotic ECM production in response        to pro-fibrotic stimulants such as TGF-beta or other fibrogenic        compounds (e.g. histology and gene expression).    -   Induction of inflammation, either acute (e.g., enteritis) or        chronic (e.g., IBD). Inflammatory stimulation may include        cytokines (e.g., IL-17), bacterial components or products,        chemical disruption to generate a wound (e.g., dextran sodium        sulfate), physical disruption (e.g., cutting, bisecting,        abrading, scraping, puncturing), TLR agonists (e.g. LPS, RNA,        imiquimod) or chemical (e.g., use of        2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid to induce a model of IBD).    -   Release of cytokines (e.g., IL-8, TNF-alpha, IL-4, IL-19, IL-13,        IL-17, IFN-gamma), antimicrobial peptides (e.g., beta definsin,        lysozymes, sIgA), and endocrine products (e.g., somatostatin).    -   Activation of inflammatory pathways (e.g., JAK/STAT, NFkB).    -   Barrier disruption in response to inflammation (e.g., by        histology, TEER, Lucifer yellow)    -   Changes in mucus secretion/gene regulation/loss of goblet cells        in response to inflammatory stimuli.    -   Proliferation/apoptosis (e.g, by detecting Caspase 8 or by        terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling        (Tunel) that detects DNA fragmentation).    -   Upregulation of markers and receptors in response to stimulation        (TLRs, Myd99, HNF4alpha, MLCK, Muc2 or TFF3).

In some embodiments, the intestinal models of the present disclosuredisplay increased specific functions compared to 2D co-culture or tissueexplants that have been maintained in culture longer than 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 days or 1, 2, 3, or 4 weeks. In some embodiments, theintestinal tissue models of the present disclosure display 2-foldincreased specific functions compared to 2D co-culture or tissueexplants that have been maintained in culture longer than 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 days or 1, 2, 3, or 4 weeks. In some embodiments, theintestinal tissue models of the present disclosure display 5-fold ormore increased specific functions compared to 2D co-culture or tissueexplants that have been maintained in culture longer than 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 days or 1, 2, 3, or 4 weeks. In some embodiments, theintestinal tissue models of the present disclosure display 2-fold ormore increased specific functions compared to 2D co-culture or tissueexplants that have been maintained in culture longer than 14 or moredays. In some embodiments, the intestinal tissue models of the presentdisclosure display 5-fold or more increased specific functions comparedto 2D co-culture or tissue explants that have been maintained in culturelonger than >14 days. In some embodiments, the intestinal tissue modelsof the present disclosure display 2-fold or more increased specificfunctions compared to 2D co-culture or tissue explants that have beenmaintained in culture longer than 14 or more days. In some embodiments,the intestinal tissue models of the present disclosure display 5-fold ormore increased specific functions compared to 2D co-culture or tissueexplants that have been maintained in culture longer than 14 or moredays.

EXAMPLES

The following illustrative examples are representative of embodiments,of the software applications, systems, and methods described herein andare not meant to be limiting in any way.

Example 1 A Manually Created Three-Dimensional Intestinal Tissue Model

Human intestinal tissue was fabricated with human primary intestinalcells and intestinal cell lines by continuous deposition usinginterstitial bio-ink containing gelatin and manual deposition of anepithelial suspension.

Bio-ink was generated by a cellular mixture of 100% primary adult humanintestinal myofibroblasts (IMF) in 8% gelatin in a concentration of 20million cells per milliliter. Three-dimensional bioink constructs wereprinted by continuous deposition using the Novogen MMX Bioprinter®. Onetissue was printed per transwell in a 24 well plate. The transwellprinting surface contained a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) membranecoated with equimolar mixture of types I and III collagen (bovine) withpores 3 μm in size. Following printing, tissues were allowed to maturefor 4 days in a humidified incubator in growth media. Tissues werecultured in 100% IMF media and media was changed daily. Afterincubation, interstitial tissue constructs were removed from theincubator and placed in a BSC hood. Media was aspirated immediatelybefore application of epithelial cells. Epithelial cells were added as acell suspension mixture of 75% Caco-2 cells and 25% STC-1 cells. Caco-2cells are a human colorectal adenocarcinoma epithelial cell line. STC-1cells are a mouse enteroendocrine intestinal cell line. In some wells noepithelial cells were added to the printed IMF layer and these wellswere used as a control for comparison studies. In some wells, epithelialcells were added to an empty transwell with no IMF layer as anadditional 2D control. After deposition, media was added to the outerarea of the transwell basket. Media was changed daily for up to 18 days.The full culture period was 4 days of IMF interstitial tissue incubationplus 4, 7, or 14 days post addition of epithelial cells. Thus,experiments are labeled as day 4, 7, and 14, which corresponds to a fullculture time of 8, 11, and 18 days, respectively.

Experiment time course studies were run 4, 7, and 14 days post additionof epithelial cells. Tissues were measured for GLP-1 secretion intosupernatant. Tissues were also measured for barrier function at multipletime points by TEER or Lucifer yellow (non-lytic assays). Afterincubation, the tissues were fixed in paraformaldehyde (PFA) forhistology or lysed for RNA extraction.

Results

Bioprinted intestinal tissue constructs maintained a cohesive structureafter incubation in static media conditions and achieved a bi-layeredarchitecture. Tissues were cross sectioned perpendicular to the plane ofthe transwell to show the interstitial and epithelial layers. Anunexpected finding was that the Caco-2 epithelial layer increased inthickness over time in culture in 3D tissues and this was not observedin 2D monolayer cultures of Caco-2 epithelial cells within the timeperiod studied. The data suggested cross talk between the printedinterstitial myofibroblast layer and the epithelial layer that directsdifferentiation and secondary structure formation of the tissueepithelium. This data suggests a printed interstitial layer is requiredfor tissue thickening and secondary structure formation. In addition,the data suggests that neither flow conditions nor mechanicalstimulation are required for appropriate secondary structure formation(FIGS. 1A-1B)

The tissues expressed markers of normal native intestinal tissue. H&Eshowed thickening of the epithelial layer over time while the bi-layeredstructure of vimentin+myofibroblasts and CK19+ epithelial cells wasmaintained (FIG. 2A). Each layer expressed the correct markers, withbasal lamina stained by collagen IV in the IMF layer and E-Cadherin inthe epithelial layer, indicating the presence of tight junctions. Thepresence of tight junctions is a key finding that indicates a barrier isforming within the epithelium. Correct polarization of the epithelialcells, shown by apical staining of villin, was seen early in culturewith some disorganization as tissues thickened over time. A polarizedepithelium is also a key finding that signifies cells are spatiallyorganizing as the tissues mature (FIGS. 2B-2F). The PCNA stainingdemonstrates that the tissues are highly viable and proliferating inculture. These tissues were stained for MUC2 and Alcian blue/PAS thatindicates they do not express mucins, which is expected as it is knownthat Caco-2 cells do not produce mucus (FIGS. 3A-3C).

SV40 T-antigen was used to identify the STC-1 cells and showedaggregation and segregation from Caco-2 cells at early time points,followed by invasion into the interstitium at later time points. The 3Dsystem allows for visualization of STC-1 cell behavior, which was notpossible in 2D co-cultures and suggested that the STC-1 cells take on aphenotype similar to the tumor tissue they were originally isolatedfrom. This suggests that the model system could be used to study theinteraction of tumor cells with a healthy tissue microenvironment,including assessing effects on tumor growth and invasion/metastasis.While both cell lines may have an artificially high growth rate comparedto native tissue or primary epithelial cells, Caco-2 cells were observedto dominate the epithelial layer over time in culture (FIG. 3A-3C).

Bioprinted tissues developed a barrier as measured by TEER and Luciferyellow. Barrier formation was artificially high in Caco-2/STC-1 2Dmonolayer cultures as expected from historic literature on Caco-2 cells.A key finding was that barrier function was within a physiological rangein 3D tissues, suggesting the 3D environment is more physiologicallyrelevant than 2D monolayers and may produce more native-like tissues.Also note that TEER and permeability data is reproducible acrossmultiple experiments highlighting the reproducibility of the bioprintedapproach (FIGS. 4, 5, and 6A-6B).

Bioprinted tissues produce GLP-1 7 days post addition of the epitheliallayer. This indicated that the STC-1 cells are present in the tissue andfunctional as it is known that Caco-2 cells alone cannot produce GLP-1.3D tissues produce more GLP-1 then 2D monolayers at the same time point.This finding was unexpected and may again support the beneficial effectof a 3D environment on cell behavior. It may also reflect the increasedthickness of 3D tissue and potentially increased number of cells presentin 3D epithelium as it matures in culture. (FIG. 7 )

3D Caco-2 tissues express key transporters in a similar pattern to 2Dmonolayers by qPCR. Patterns may be different at different time pointsstudied, but collectively data shows that both 2D and 3D tissues expressthe same markers within a similar range. Histology indicated that P-gpmay be more upregulated in 3D tissues, which is an unexpected finding.Also the P-gp staining was on the apical side of the epithelium, againsupporting proper polarization of epithelial cells and proper locationof an apical efflux transporter similar to native tissue. (FIGS. 8 and9A-9B)

Example 2 A Bioprinted Three-Dimensional Intestinal Tissue Model

A human intestinal tissue construct was fabricated by bioprinting with100% human adult primary intestinal cells by continuous deposition usinginterstitial bio-ink containing collagen followed by deposition ofepithelial suspension.

Bio-ink was generated by a cellular mixture of 100% primary adult humanintestinal myofibroblasts (IMF) in 100% bovine type I collagen at aconcentration of 20 million cells per milliliter. Three-dimensionalbio-ink constructs were printed by continuous deposition using theNovogen MMX Bioprinter® in a base layer to create an interstitialstructure. One tissue was printed per transwell in a 24 well plate. Thetranswell printing surface contained a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)membrane coated with equimolar mixture of types I and III collagen(bovine) with pores 3 μm in size. Following printing, tissues wereallowed to mature for 4 days in a humidified 37° C. incubator in 100%IMF media and media was changed daily. After incubation, interstitialtissue constructs were removed from the incubator and placed in a BSChood. Media was aspirated immediately before application of epithelialcells. Epithelial cells were dispensed as a cell suspension of 100%primary adult human intestinal epithelial cells onto the printedinterstitial layer. Media used contained 100% primary intestinalepithelial cell growth media. In some wells no epithelial cells wereadded to the printed IMF layer and these wells were used as a controlfor comparison studies. After deposition, media was added to the outerarea of the transwell basket. Media was changed every 24-28 hours for upto 21 days. Full culture period is 4 days of IMF interstitial tissueincubation plus 9, 10, or 17 days post addition of epithelial cells.Thus, experiments are labeled as day 9, 10, and 17, which corresponds toa full culture time of 13, 14 and 21 days, respectively.

Experiment time course studies were run 0, 9, 10, and 17 days postaddition of epithelial cells. Tissues were measured for GLP-1 secretioninto supernatant at day 10 and 17. Tissues were also measured forbarrier function at multiple time points by TEER or Lucifer yellow(non-lytic assays). After incubation, the tissues were fixed inparaformaldehyde (PFA) for histology or lysed for RNA extraction.

Results

Bioprinted intestinal tissues maintained a cohesive structure afterincubation in media and achieved a bi-layered architecture. Tissues werecross sectioned perpendicular to the plane of the transwell to show theinterstitial and epithelial layers (FIG. 10 ). A key finding is thattissues printed exclusively with primary intestinal cells in both theinterstitium and epithelium exhibit the correct architecture andexpression patterning similar to native tissue. Tight junctions indicatethe epithelial cells formed a barrier. Epithelial cell layer isorganized and polarized, with clear apical staining of villin suggestinga brush border was formed. A key finding is that 3D tissues are viable(PCNA staining) throughout 17 day culture period. Tissues also expressP-gp and BCRP, efflux transporters in the correct apical expressionpattern. It is also important to point out that this laminararchitecture is in contrast to alternative non-bioprinted methods ofculturing primary intestinal epithelial cells in vitro, which producesround aggregates with epithelial cells directed inwardly toward thecenter (intestinal organoids). In a rounded conformation, the apicalsurface is not exposed and cannot be utilized for direct stimulation ofcompounds, nor does it allow for the collection of sample from bothapical and basolateral sides of the intestinal wall that are requiredfor absorption/permeability assessment. (FIGS. 11A-11D)

Brightfield imaging of the tissue shows formation of secondaryvilli-like structures on the epithelial surface. This is importantbecause it supports that the gross morphology of the bioprinted tissueresembles native tissue. This was also seen at day 9 of culture,indicating that the 3D environment provided by bioprinting may enhancetissue differentiation. (FIGS. 11A and 11C)

Tissues show presence of chromogranin A (CHGA) positive cells, a markerfor enteroendocrine cells. This finding is important because itdemonstrates the presence of specialized epithelial cell types normallyfound within native tissue can also be found in bioprinted tissue withprimary intestinal epithelial cells. It is a key finding because itsuggests that a stem cell population may be present within the primaryepithelial cells and that this population is capable of differentiatingwithin the 3D tissue environment. It is also a key finding becauseCaco-2 cells alone do not have endocrine function or CHGA positivecells. (FIGS. 11A and 11C)

3D tissues fabricated with primary intestinal epithelial cells producemucus and apical brush border. This finding highlights the fact thatbioprinted gut tissues organize and function in a manner similar tonative tissue. This is a key finding because gold standard Caco-2tissues do not produce mucus and therefore cannot be used as a model fora mucosal barrier. Goblet cells are present. This is key because Caco-2cells do not have goblet, or goblet-like cells. It again suggests that astem cell population may be present within the primary epithelial cellsand that this population is capable of differentiating. Furthermore, itmay be possible to direct this differentiation by modifications to theprinting approach and culture conditions. (FIG. 12 )

Bioprinted tissues express key transporters and metabolic enzyme CYP3A4.Gene expression analysis shows all markers tested were upregulated astissues mature in 9 day culture period, again supporting that tissuesare viable in culture. Normalization of expression values toepithelial-specific marker CK19 showed that upregulation of expressionis specific to epithelial cells, similar to native tissue. Separation ofbiological replicates (n=3) also highlights the reproducibility betweenbioprinted tissues. (FIGS. 13A-13B)

Transporter and metabolic enzyme expression in primary intestinalepithelial cells was much higher than and therefore superior to 3DCaco-2 tissues. A very important differentiator of tissues fabricatedwith primary intestinal epithelial cells was that key P450 metabolicenzyme CYP3A4 expression was very high in primary IEC and completelylacking in Caco-2 tissues. CYP3A4 activity is a key metabolic enzymeused to study drug metabolism. It is widely known that Caco-2 cellscannot be used as an in vitro model to study CYP3A4 activity due theirlack of CYP3A4 expression. This data highlights a key advantage of thebioprinted intestinal tissue constructs over conventional in vitromodels. (FIG. 14 )

Intestinal stem cell marker LGR5 was expressed at Day 0 (when theepithelial cells are added), suggesting that the primary intestinalepithelial cell population contains a subpopulation of stem cells.Expression of stem cell marker LGR5 decreases over time in culture whilemarkers for specialized epithelial cells including enteroendocrine cells(CHGA) and goblet cells (MUC2) increases. This suggests that stem cellswere present and differentiating normally within the epithelium whilethe tissues mature in culture to produce specialized cell types. Primaryenteroendocrine cells and primary goblet cells are not commerciallyavailable. That makes this finding important because it tells us that wecan produce a 3D tissue that contains native cell types and can alsopotentially drive the differentiation of the tissue toward specific celltypes to achieve a specific phenotype. Again, the data highlights a keyadvantage of bioprinted gut tissues over conventional in vitro models.(FIG. 15 )

Example 3 A Bioprinted Three-Dimensional Intestinal Tissue ModelComprising Enteroendocrine Cells

A human intestinal tissue construct was fabricated with human adultprimary intestinal cells and mouse enteroendocrine cell line STC-1 bycontinuous deposition using an interstitial bio-ink containing collagenand manual deposition of an epithelial suspension.

The interstitial layer was generated in an identical manner to Example2. Bio-ink was generated by a cellular mixture of 100% primary adulthuman intestinal myofibroblasts (IMF) in bovine type I collagen at aconcentration of 20 million cells per milliliter. Three-dimensionalbioink constructs were printed by continuous deposition using theNovogen MMX Bioprinter® in a base layer with to create an interstitialstructure. One tissue was printed per transwell in a 24 well plate. Thetranswell printing surface contained a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)membrane coated with equimolar mixture of types I and III collagen(bovine) with pores 3 μm in size. Following printing, tissues wereallowed to mature for 4 days in a humidified 37° C. incubator. Tissueswere cultured in 100% IMF media and media was changed daily. Afterincubation, interstitial tissue constructs were removed from theincubator and placed in a BSC hood. Media was aspirated immediatelybefore application of epithelial cells. Epithelial cells were dispensedmanually onto the printed interstitial layer as a cell suspensionmixture of 99% primary adult human intestinal epithelial cells and 1%mouse STC-1 cells. In some wells no epithelial cells were added to theprinted IMF layer and these wells were used as a control for comparisonstudies. In other control wells, 100% STC-1 cells were added in theepithelium with no primary intestinal epithelial cells. Afterdeposition, media was added to the outer area of the transwell basket.Media was changed every 24-48 hours or up to 21 days. Full cultureperiod is 4 days of IMF interstitial tissue incubation plus 9, 10, or 17days post addition of epithelial cells. Thus, experiments are labeled asday 9, 10, and 17, which corresponds to a full culture time of 13, 14and 21 days, respectively.

Experiment time course studies were run 0, 9, 10, and 17 days postaddition of epithelial cells. Tissues were measured for GLP-1 secretioninto supernatant at day 10 and 17. Tissues were also measured forbarrier function at multiple time points by TEER or Lucifer yellow(non-lytic assays). After incubation, the tissues were fixed inparaformaldehyde (PFA) for histology or lysed for RNA extraction.

Results

STC-1 cells alone form a thick layer when added op top of a bioprintedmyofibroblast interstitial layer in the absence of primary epithelialcells, suggesting that the 3D environment may be giving them cues toaggregate. STC-1 cells do not have an epithelial phenotype as they donot express epithelial marker CK19 and they do not form tight junctions.When combined with primary intestinal epithelial cells, they do notevenly incorporate into the epithelium and instead form aggregates thatinvade the interstitial layer. The benefit of a 3D system is that itallows us to observe this STC-1 cell function. In addition, thissuggests that the model system could be used to study the interaction oftumor cells with a healthy tissue microenvironment, including assessingeffects on tumor growth and invasion/metastasis. Aggregate formation andinvasion cannot be visualized in 2D monolayer co-cultures. (FIGS.16A-16B)

Bioprinted intestinal tissues fabricated with 1% STC-1 and 99% primaryintestinal epithelial cells in the epithelium appear similar inhistological panel to tissues printed 100% primary intestinal epithelialcells. Similar bi-layered architecture, expression patterning,viability, and mucosal barrier staining can be seen despite the unusualbehavior of STC-1 cells. The similarity in data in Example 3 compared toExample 2 highlights the reproducibility of the 3D bioprinted intestinaltissue construct phenotype and the robustness of the model. (FIGS.16A-16B and 17A-17B)

GLP-1 secretion was detected at basal levels in 3D printed tissues.GLP-1 secretion was augmented by the presence of STC-1 cells asexpected. Secretion was further augmented by stimulation with a cocktailof known GLP-1 stimulants including glucose, forskolin, and IBMX, asexpected. What was unexpected was that the primary intestinal epithelialcells alone can produce GLP-1. This indicates that enteroendocrine cellsare not only present but functional, and supports histological stainingthat shows CHGA positive cells in tissue epithelium. What was alsounexpected was that the GLP-1 secretion from primary cells can also bestimulated in the absence of STC-1 cells. This indicates thatenteroendocrine cells are present in tissues with primary intestinalepithelial cells, that they are functional, and that function isinducible. (FIGS. 18A-18B)

Barrier function was also demonstrated in tissues fabricated withprimary intestinal epithelial cells. Barrier function was measured byboth TEER and Lucifer yellow permeability. It is important to note thatbarrier formation in this model requires the presence of primaryintestinal epithelial cells which would stain positive for cytokeratin18. The data shows that the interstitial layer (IMF) alone does not forma barrier, and that STC-1 cells do not form a barrier. Incorporation of1% STC-1 cells into the primary cell epithelium does not disrupt thebarrier but may increase tissue variability. This data was consistentwith the E-cadherin staining shown histologically. E-cadherin is a tightjunction marker and is required for barrier formation, and was onlypresent in tissues with primary intestinal epithelial cells. (FIGS.19A-19C)

Gene expression panel in Taqman array card shows that key genes werepresent and induced over 17 day time course as tissues mature anddifferentiate in culture. Gene expression patterns are clustered in heatmap by biological replicate indicating that tissues are highlyreproducible (n=3 biological replicates per group). 2 separateexperiments are compared: one with only primary intestinal epithelialcells, one with both primary intestinal epithelial cells and 1% STC-1cells and showed similar trends. This indicated that experimentalresults are reproducible between experiments, again supporting thereproducibility of bioprinted gut tissues.

Taqman array showed that key transporters, Phase I and Phase 2 metabolicenzymes, lipid biology markers, and enteroendocrine markers were presentand upregulated. Again, it is important to note that expression of keytransporters and metabolic enzyme CYP3A4 is superior in tissuesfabricated with primary cells to those fabricated with Caco-2 cells.They are highly expressed and increase as tissues mature in culture. Itis also important to note that key endocrine genes are present intissues that lack STC-1 cells and increase with time in culture. Theendocrine genes again support the presence of enteroendocrine cells inthe primary intestinal epithelial cells and that these cells may becapable of multiple functions including CCK, PYY, and SST secretion inaddition to GLP-1 secretion demonstrated previously. (FIGS. 20A-20E)

Metabolic enzyme CYP3A4 was not only expressed, but enzymaticallyfunctional for a period of at least 17 days. This functional activitywas a key and unexpected finding because it not only shows that thetissues were metabolically competent for greater than 2 weeks, buthighlights an endpoint that cannot be achieved with the current goldstandard Caco-2 model (Caco-2 tissues lack CYP3A4 expression).Furthermore, well established drugs that are known to stimulate(Rifampicin) and inhibit (Ketoconazole) CYP3A4 activity in nativeintestine also functioned in a similar manner in the 3D bioprintedintestinal tissue model. Caco-2 cells cannot demonstrate drug-inducedCYP3A4 activity. In addition, this CYP3A4 function was unexpectedly seenfor greater than 14 days without the presence of fluid flow ormechanical stimulation, suggesting that neither is a requirement forrecapitulation of physiologic function in the intestinal tissues. TheMDCK cell line is often used as a surrogate in vitro for drug metabolismstudies but these are canine and kidney cells, and therefore acompletely different system. (FIGS. 21A-21B)

Example 4 A Bioprinted Three-Dimensional Intestinal Tissue Model

A human intestinal tissue construct was fabricated by bioprinting with100% human adult primary intestinal cells by continuous deposition usinginterstitial bio-ink containing collagen followed by deposition ofepithelial suspension.

Bio-ink was generated by a cellular mixture of 100% primary adult humanintestinal myofibroblasts (IMF) in 100% bovine type I collagen at aconcentration of 20 million cells per milliliter (20M/mL).Three-dimensional bio-ink constructs were printed by continuousdeposition using the Novogen MMX Bioprinter® in a base layer to createan interstitial structure. One tissue was printed per transwell in a 24well plate. The transwell printing surface contained apolytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) membrane coated with equimolar mixture oftypes I and III collagen (bovine) with pores 3 μm in size. Followingprinting, tissues were allowed to mature for 4 days in a humidified 37°C. incubator in 100% IMF media and media was changed daily. Afterincubation, interstitial tissue constructs were removed from theincubator and placed in a BSC hood. Media was aspirated immediatelybefore application of epithelial cells. Epithelial cells were dispensedas a cell suspension of 100% primary adult human intestinal epithelialcells onto the printed interstitial layer. Media used contained 100%primary intestinal epithelial cell growth media. In some wells noepithelial cells were added to the printed IMF layer and these wellswere used as a control for comparison studies. After deposition, tissueswere then cultured in 3D intestinal media comprising of AdvancedDMEM/F12 (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, Mass.) with supplements.Media was changed everyday for up to 21 days.

To show the technical advancements of the bioprinted three-dimensionalintestinal tissue model over Caco-2 monolayers, Caco-2 monolayer studieswere also conducted. Briefly, cells were seeded at 30,000 cells/cm2 perwell onto standard 24-well Transwell® permeable supports and cultured atair-liquid interface in DMEM with L-glutamine (Gibco, Thermo FisherScientific, Waltham, Mass.)+10% FBS (VWR, Radnor, Pa.) with mediachanges every 48 hours. Monolayers were grown for 21 days then qualifiedfor used by TEER (785±56 Ω*cm2).

Histological Characterization of the 3D Bioprinted Human IntestinalTissue of Example 4.

Histological characterization demonstrated a polarized epithelium withapical expression of villin, tight junction formation, and the presenceof specialized epithelial cell types including goblet cells, Panethcells, and enteroendocrine cells. The 3D bioprinted intestinal tissue ofExample 4 was designed with bi-layered architecture, consisting of humanintestinal myofibroblasts (IMF) supporting an epithelial layercontaining human intestinal epithelial cells (hIEC). The 3D bioprintedintestinal tissue was fabricated with laminar architecture on transwellinserts (FIG. 22A) to enable access to both apical and basolateralsurfaces for direct compound testing and analyzed histologically over a17 day culture period. At day 17, tissues exhibited polarized columnarepithelial morphology and secondary structure formation (FIG. 22B). Theepithelial and interstitial tissue compartments remained distinct, withcorrect expression of epithelial cell-specific marker CK19 confined tothe epithelial layer and myofibroblast marker vimentin confined to theinterstitium (FIG. 22C). Tight junction marker E-Cadherin, a key proteininvolved in barrier function, was uniformly expressed between epithelialcells of the hIEC layer (FIG. 22D). Correct polarization of the hIEC andbrush border formation was seen by positive staining for brush borderprotein villin at the apical surface (FIG. 22E). Periodic acid-Schiff(PAS)/Alcian blue staining confirmed an apical brush border andsuggested the presence of a subpopulation of goblet cells as well as theexcretion of mucus (FIG. 22F). Immunohistochemistry for Mucin-2confirmed the presence of goblet cells and mucus secretion, a featureindicative of normal intestinal function. The mucus entrapped cellssloughed off from the epithelium during normal cell-turnover over timein culture, resulting in cellular debris observed histologically (FIG.22G). In addition to goblet cells, other specialized cell types of theintestinal epithelium critical for many responses to various biologicalstimuli were present within the epithelial layer of the 3D bioprintedintestinal tissue model, including lysozyme positive Paneth cells, andchromogranin expressing enteroendocrine cells (FIG. 22H-22I). Tissuearchitecture and expression of key cell markers was maintained forgreater than two weeks in culture, with consistent expression patterningon the day 10 and day 17 time points analyzed, suggesting the model maybe suitable for extended compound studies.

The 3D bioprinted intestinal tissues were thicker in comparison toCaco-2 monolayer cultures and contained secondary structure formation inthe epithelium absent in the monolayers. Although the Caco-2 cellsappeared less columnar than the epithelium of the 3D bioprintedintestinal tissues, they expressed E-Cadherin and villin, confirmingtight junction formation and the polarized epithelial phenotype. Incontrast to 3D bioprinted intestinal tissues, however, subpopulations ofspecialized cells and evidence of mucus production were absent in theCaco-2 monolayers (FIG. 29 ).

Characterization of Gene Expression of the 3D Bioprinted HumanIntestinal Tissue of Example 4.

Gene expression analysis was utilized to further evaluate expression ofkey intestinal epithelial tissue markers, metabolic enzymes, andtransporters in the 3D bioprinted intestinal tissue over a 17 dayculture period and compared to both native donor intestinal tissue andto standard Caco-2 monolayers (FIG. 23 ). To specifically studydifferential expression in the epithelium and to remove any variance intotal cell number, genes were analyzed relative to expression ofepithelial-specific marker CK19. Tight junction marker E-Cadherin (CDH1)was highly expressed in all samples. Although levels were comparable in3D intestinal tissues and native tissue, E-Cadherin expression in Caco-2monolayers was artificially high. In support of histological findings,markers for specialized cell subpopulations including Paneth cells (LYZ)and enteroendocrine cells (CHGA) were present in 3D bioprintedintestinal tissue and comparable to native donor tissue while Caco-2monolayers lacked their expression. Although Mucin-2 cells wereidentified by immunohistochemical approaches (FIG. 22G) in the 3Dbioprinted intestinal tissues, gene expression was decreased compared tonative intestine. The majority of gene expression values in bioprintedtissues were within 2-fold of the donor intestinal tissue. Keyxenobiotic-activated nuclear receptors involved in drug metabolism anddisposition including VDR, PXR (NR1I2), and CXR (NR1I3) were alsoexpressed in 3D bioprinted intestinal tissue and at comparable levels tonative intestine. In contrast, Caco-2 exhibited abnormally highexpression of VDR and low expression of NR1I2 (FIG. 23A).

Major intestinal Phase I P450 metabolic enzymes including CYP3A4,CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, and CYP2J2 were detected in the 3D bioprintedintestinal tissue. Clinically important CYP3A4 was highly expressed inthe 3D bioprinted intestinal model at levels similar to native tissue,while expression was absent in Caco-2 monolayers. CES2, a majorbiotransformation enzyme involved in hydrolysis, was also highlyexpressed in both native intestine and 3D intestinal tissue but at amuch lower level in Caco-2 monolayers. Key intestinal Phase II metabolicenzymes GSTP1 and UGT1A1 were expressed by 3D bioprinted intestinaltissues as well as transcripts for fatty acid metabolism, includingDGAT1, MOGAT2, and MTTP (FIG. 23B). Intestinal efflux and uptaketransporters can be both sites of drug-drug interaction and limitingfactors for drug absorption. Major efflux transporters P-gp (ABCB1,MDR1) and BCRP (ABCG2) and key uptake transporters PEPT1 (SLC15A1) andOATP2B1 (SLCO2B1) are expressed in 3D bioprinted intestinal tissues withlevels comparable to native intestine (FIG. 23C). Intestinal bile acidrelated transporters ASBT (SLC10A2), OSTa (SLC51A), and OSTb (SLC51B)were also detected. Interestingly in Caco-2 monolayers, many importantmetabolic enzymes and transporters analyzed were reduced, overexpressedor absent, suggesting that the bioprinted model more closely resemblesnormal tissue function than the Caco-2 monolayer.

Characterization of Barrier Function of the 3D Bioprinted HumanIntestinal Tissue of Example 4.

The 3D bioprinted intestinal tissue of Example 4 developed physiologicalbarrier function and correctly distinguished between high and lowpermeability compounds. The intestine is a selectively permeablebarrier, regulating absorption of both nutrients and xenobiotics.Transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) was utilized to measurebarrier function in 3D bioprinted intestinal tissues over a 21 dayculture period. Measurements demonstrated that the tissues developed andmaintained barrier function between days 10 and 21 of culture,exhibiting values within a physiological range (50-100 Ω*cm2) comparableto normal human intestine function [20] (FIG. 24 |A). In contrast,Caco-2 monolayers demonstrated much greater TEER measurements (785±56Ω*cm2), values significantly higher than normal human tissue function.

Representative compounds with high and low permeability were used tofurther validate 3D bioprinted intestinal tissue barrier function (FIG.24B). Paracellular transport marker Lucifer yellow correctlydemonstrated low permeability, suggesting the presence of an intactphysical barrier for drug transport. The 3D bioprinted intestinaltissues correctly distinguished between low permeability mitoxantrone, aprototypical substrate for the ABCG2 (BCRP) efflux transporter andhigher permeability propranolol, a passive transcellular transportreference compound.

Transporter Localization and Function in the 3D Bioprinted IntestinalTissue Model of Example 4.

Immunohistochemical staining was used to confirm the correct polarizedexpression patterning of key efflux transporters P-gp (ABCB1, MDR1) andBCRP (ABCG2) at the apical surface. Staining demonstrated thatexpression was continuous across the apical surface similar to nativetissue, whereas apical expression in Caco-2 cells appeared in patchesacross the monolayer (FIGS. 25A-25B). Histological staining alsoconfirmed correct apical MRP2 and basolateral MRP3 expression patterningin 3D bioprinted intestinal tissues similar to native intestine. Incontrast, Caco-2 monolayers appeared to overexpress MRP2 and MRP3transporters consistent with gene expression data (FIG. 31 ).

Assessing bi-directional transport enables prediction of whether acompound undergoes active efflux. P-gp and BCRP function were tested inthe 3D bioprinted intestinal tissue model by measuring bi-directionaltransport with and without inhibition (FIG. 25C). Under controlconditions, asymmetric permeability of P-gp substrate Digoxin wasobserved with an efflux ratio greater than 2. Inhibition of P-gp byZosuquidar decreased the rate of B to A transport, reducing the effluxratio to 1.2, and confirming the activity of P-gp in 3D bioprintedintestinal tissue. BCRP function was confirmed by efflux of topotecan(FIG. 25D) and mitoxantrone (FIG. 30 ). BCRP/P-gp substrate Topotecanand BCRP substrate mitoxantrone were preferentially transported in the Bto A direction with efflux ratios of 8.8 and 129, respectively.Furthermore, subsequent inhibition of topotecan transport by BCRPinhibitor Ko143 reduced the efflux ratio to 3.6 and dual inhibition withKo143 and Zosuquidar further decreased efflux ratio to 1.4.Collectively, these results demonstrate that the 3D bioprintedintestinal tissue model expresses clinically relevant P-gp and BCRPtransporters with proper localization and function.

Demonstration of Cytochrome P450 Metabolic Function in the 3D BioprintedIntestinal Tissue Model of Example 4.

Gene expression analysis identified expression of key intestinalcytochrome P450 enzymes CYP3A4 and CYP2C9 in 3D bioprinted intestinaltissues (FIG. 23B). Functional assays were performed on CYP3A4 andCYP2C9 to confirm their activity and specificity (FIG. 26 ). CYP2C9activity was readily detected in 3D bioprinted intestinal tissue byluminogenic P450 substrate conversion and could be significantlyinhibited by sulfaphenazole (FIG. 26A). CYP3A4 activity and specificinhibition by ketoconazole was confirmed by both a luminogenic P450substrate conversion (FIG. 26B) and by Midazolam metabolite formation(FIG. 26 ). Rifampicin treatment was associated with significantlyhigher turnover of Midazolam in treated tissues and significantupregulation in gene expression of PXR-inducible genes including CYP2C9,CYP3A4, CYP3A5, P-gp, and UGT1A1 while epithelial marker genes CK19 andECAD remained stable (FIG. 26D-26E). Comparison of CYP3A4 activity forthree separate sets of 3D bioprinted intestinal tissues fabricated fromthree separate donors showed consistency of ketoconazole inhibition andRifampicin induction between donors despite expected interindividualvariation in basal CYP3A4 activity (FIG. 32 ).

Characterization of the 3D Bioprinted Intestinal Tissues (Example 4) asa Model for Gastrointestinal Toxicity.

The utility of the 3D bioprinted intestinal model for compound toxicityapplications was evaluated by the NSAID indomethacin, a prostaglandin E₂(PGE2) oxygenase inhibitor and known GI toxicant that results in reducedintestinal epithelial barrier function through enterocyte apoptosis andnecrosis. The 3D bioprinted intestinal tissue showed a dose-dependentdecrease in barrier function as measured by TEER in response to 24 hourtreatment (FIG. 27A). Injury to the intestinal cells was detected by LDHrelease and was significantly increased in the presence of indomethacindoses above 0.25 mM (FIG. 27B). Demonstrated inhibition of prostaglandinE₂ synthesis in the presence of indomethacin supported known themechanism of activity (FIG. 27C). Utilization of histological analysis,an advantage of a 3D bioprinted intestinal tissue model, confirmedincreased disruption of the epithelial layer and decreased expression ofE-Cadherin correlated with increasing indomethacin dosing and consistentwith loss in barrier function (FIG. 27D).

To characterize the 3D bioprinted intestinal model response toinflammation, commonly associated with GI toxicity as well as chronicdisease conditions, tissues were treated with a high dose ofpro-inflammatory cytokine TNFα for 24 hours and evaluated for changes inmorphology, LDH release, and gene expression (FIG. 28 ). Treatment withTNFα altered epithelial morphology and resulted in dissociation of cellsfrom the interstitial layer. This was accompanied by a significantincrease in LDH release from 3D bioprinted intestinal tissue, suggestinga cytotoxic response and enterocyte death. Gene expression for COX-2,IL-8, and TNFα was also upregulated, demonstrating activation ofinflammatory pathways. The data collectively demonstrate that 3Dbioprinted intestinal tissues can be used to detect and quantifyhistologic and biochemical aspects of GI toxicity in vitro, includingbarrier disruption and inflammation.

Advantages of 3D Bioprinted Intestinal Tissue Model

Current preclinical models are limited in their ability to capture thecomplexities and function of human intestinal tissue [1-5]. Cellmonolayers lack native context of cell-cell and cell-matrix interactionsand are phenotypically limited, while genetic disparity of animal modelsmay not provide a high correlation with human outcomes [16]. The fullyhuman bioprinted human 3D intestinal tissue model was engineered usingprimary human cells and was able to recapitulate multiple facets ofintestinal biology and function in order to bridge gaps and addresstranslational challenges associated with poor predictability in drugdevelopment. The bioprinting platform allows for an automated approachthat can reproducibly generate multicellular 3D bioprinted tissuesthrough spatially controlled cellular deposition to better mimic nativetissue structure and function compared to traditional 2D models [18,19]. The 3D complexity allows for both interrogation of the tissues viastandard biochemical approaches as well as histological endpoints. The3D bioprinted intestinal tissue is a highly cellular structure withlaminar architecture to allow for access to apical and basalcompartments.

The 3D microenvironment promotes crosstalk between primary humanmyofibroblasts and primary human epithelial cells to support thedevelopment and maintenance of a polarized epithelium over a 17 dayculture period. Histological analysis confirmed correct polarization ofthe epithelium with columnar epithelial morphology, tight junctions, andapical brush border formation. Histology and gene expression analysesalso demonstrated the presence of specialized cell subpopulations andevidence of mucus production in 3D bioprinted intestinal tissues thatwas notably absent in standard Caco-2 monolayers. The identification ofMucin-2 positive goblet cells and mucin staining together with thepresence of Paneth cells suggests that these tissues could be used tocharacterize additional aspects of intestinal biology including mucosalbarrier function and antimicrobial or microbiome function. While mucin-2gene expression is decreased compared to native intestine, this may bedue in part to differences in temporal regulation at the transcriptionallevel or a phenotype that can be modulated by altering cultureconditions [11]. Chromogranin positive cells suggest that 3D intestinaltissues could also be used to study enteroendocrine function in the gutincluding GLP-1 signaling. This data indicates that stem cellpopulations within the isolate can differentiate within 3D intestinaltissues as they mature in culture akin to the composition achievedthrough organoid cell culture [9, 10, 21], and may be able to undergodirected differentiation by modification of culture conditions [11].Although adult primary cells were utilized to fabricate tissues in thisstudy, iPSCs can also be considered as a potential alternative cellsource to facilitate achieving a more specialized phenotype. Thematurity, however, of iPS derived intestinal epithelial cells moreclosely resembles a fetal stage phenotype [14].

An advantage of the laminar architecture of the 3D bioprinted tissueover organoid systems is compatibility with barrier function anddirectional transport assessments using standard methodologies. Althoughorganoid researchers have utilized approaches to expose the organoidlumen, efforts require a complex bioreactor set-up [22] and can resultin monolayers with non-physiological TEER [23, 24]. Physiologicalbarrier function by TEER was successfully demonstrated in 3D intestinaltissues by day 10 that was maintained through a 21 day culture period.The 3D intestinal tissues have TEER values consistent with reportedmonolayer cultures of adult intestinal epithelial cells [25], howeverprimary human intestinal epithelial monolayers can suffer from low CYPexpression compared to native intestine [26]. This may be due in part tothe absence of other relevant cell types like intestinal myofibroblaststo support the epithelium and sustain function. The 3D bioprintedintestinal tissues maintain barrier function for over two weeks inculture. Furthermore, tissues could successfully differentiate betweenlow and high permeability substrates such as paracellular marker Luciferyellow and transcellular marker propranolol. Functionality over anextended time in culture and the ability to distinguish betweencompounds can enable both acute and chronic studies with clinicallyrelevant endpoints. Caco-2 monolayer protocols, which require a threeweek maturation period, exhibited artificially high TEER values, whichmay be due in part to observed elevated E-Cadherin expression [20]. Withthe advantage of physiological TEER values, models with human intestinalepithelial cells may yield a better correlation with in vivopermeability than Caco-2 monolayers [25].

Intestinal efflux and influx transporters are key mediators ofabsorption. Gene expression analysis and immunohistochemistry confirmedthe presence of intestinal transporters in the 3D bioprinted intestinaltissues and demonstrated expression levels similar to that of nativedonor tissue. Clinically relevant P-gp and BCRP, efflux transporterswhich can significantly affect the net fraction of compound absorbed [2,6], were correctly expressed in the apical epithelium and functional inresponse to known substrates digoxin and topotecan, respectively.Expression of functional transporters suggests that this system could beapplied to assess the relative contributions of efflux transporters todrug disposition, or used as a potential model for increased absorptionby targeting uptake transporters such as PEPT1 and OATP2B1.

A broad gene panel was used to compare expression of 3D bioprintedintestinal tissues to native intestine and Caco-2 cells. The 3Dbioprinted intestinal tissue closely matched enzyme and transporterexpression of native intestine while Caco-2 monolayers were moredivergent, consistent with previous reports [7, 26]. This divergence maybe due in part to the cancer origin of Caco-2 cells or the tissue areaof origin of the groups compared. Expression of key metabolic enzymesand transporters is known to vary depending on the location in thegastrointestinal tract [2, 27]. Both native intestinal tissue and the 3Dbioprinted intestinal model were derived from the ileum whereas Caco-2cells are derived from the colon. The 3D bioprinted intestinal tissuedemonstrated expression of genes including key xenobiotic nuclearreceptors VDR, PXR (NR1I2), and CAR (NR1I3) as well as expression ofcytochrome P450 and phase II enzymes required for metabolism in theintestine. Activity assays for CYP2C9 and CYP3A4 confirmed that theenzymes were functional. The 3D bioprinted intestinal tissue respondedto rifampicin treatment with both increased gene expression and activityof CYP3A4, consistent with PXR activation. It is important to note thatboth CYP3A4 and PXR are not functional or absent in Caco-2 monolayers[8]. Furthermore, the robustness of the 3D model was demonstrated bymidazolam metabolism in tissues fabricated from multiple donors. Donorcomparison showed interindividual variation as expected [27] with valuessimilar to those shown for intestinal slices [28] and much higher thanthose reported for 2D systems [8, 26]. These data suggest suitability ofthis model for drug induced metabolic and transporter studies thatcannot be achieved by previous adult, fetal, or Caco-2 monolayers [8,26]. The dual presence of transporters and enzymes in the 3D bioprintedintestinal tissue model suggests that it could be used to shed light oncomplex interactions, such as those seen with overlapping P-gp/CYP3A4substrates [29].

Gastrointestinal toxicity is a common clinical adverse event in drugdevelopment often associated with a high prevalence of diarrhea, anoutcome that cannot be accurately predicted or characterized withcurrent in vitro models or in vivo models [4, 5, 30]. NSAID indomethacinwas used to successfully validate a toxicity response of the 3Dbioprinted intestinal tissue. Tissues responded in a dose-dependentmanner with decreased TEER and increased cell disruption, correlatingwith a decrease in barrier function similar to that reported in in vitro[31] and in vivo outcomes [4]. The 3D bioprinted intestinal tissue alsoresponded to the toxic inflammatory stimulus TNFα, a clinical target[30], with decreased barrier function and upregulation of inflammatorygenes, consistent with previous 2D models [32]. These data suggest thatthe 3D bioprinted intestinal model may be applied to screen other knownclasses of compounds, such as chemotherapeutics [5], that have offtarget toxicity in the intestine and combined with long term viability,indicates that the model is amenable to dosing and recovery studies.Furthermore, upregulation of inflammation markers suggests that futureapplications could include modeling chronic disease such as inflammatorybowel disease (IBD), Crohn's disease, and colitis [4, 5, 30]. Additionalcomplexity can be achieved by incorporating immune cells and/or usingintestinal cells isolated by diseased donors [13, 24].

In summary, disclosed is a novel in vitro 3D bioprinted intestinaltissue model with increased complexity and function compared to standardmodels. The fully human 3D bioprinted intestinal model recapitulates theintestinal mucosa, with physiological barrier function and expression ofkey functional transporters and metabolic enzymes. The 3D bioprintedintestinal tissue provides a flexible platform compatible with assaysfor barrier function, permeability, metabolism, transport, and toxicity.

Additional applications of the 3D bioprinted intestinal tissue modelinclude utilization as a disease model to characterize therapeutictargets for multiple applications including inflammation, infectiousdisease, and endocrine biology. High expression of enzymes involved infatty acid metabolism in the 3D bioprinted intestinal tissue indicate apotential application for evaluating compounds targeting these enzymesto combat obesity [33]. Furthermore, the interstitium of the 3Dbioprinted intestinal model provides a platform for characterizingfibrogenesis, including injury and regeneration such as wound healing, adisease phenotype that cannot be adequately modeled in 2D. To bettermimic the native microenvironment, additional applications can utilizecells from different segments of the GI tract for comparison to theileum such as the duodenum, colon and rectum and could integrate laminarflow. The 3D bioprinted intestinal model could be specialized byaddition of a variety of cellular inputs to add complexity byincorporating, for example, endothelial cells to model vasculature,smooth muscle cells to more accurately model the submucosa andgastrointestinal motility, and immune cells to model disease states.Cancer cells can also be added to model tumor behavior in a 3Denvironment. Because of the native tissue-like multicellularity andarchitecture, bioprinted 3D intestinal tissues provide a uniqueopportunity to study complex multifaceted processes including secretion,transport, cell-cell interactions and pathogenic processes acrossmultiple applications in a controlled system.

While preferred embodiments of the present invention have been shown anddescribed herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art thatsuch embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerousvariations, changes, and substitutions will now occur to those skilledin the art without departing from the invention. It should be understoodthat various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention describedherein may be employed in practicing the invention.

All patents, patent applications and publications cited herein are fullyincorporated by reference herein.

REFERENCES

-   1. Alqahtani, S., L. A. Mohamed, and A. Kaddoumi, Experimental    models for predicting drug absorption and metabolism. Expert Opin    Drug Metab Toxicol, 2013. 9(10): p. 1241-54.-   2. Peters, S. A., et al., Predicting Drug Extraction in the Human    Gut Wall: Assessing Contributions from Drug Metabolizing Enzymes and    Transporter Proteins using Preclinical Models. Clin    Pharmacokinet, 2016. 55: p. 673-96.-   3. Jones, C. R., et al., Gut Wall Metabolism. Application of    Pre-Clinical Models for the Prediction of Human Drug Absorption and    First-Pass Elimination. Aaps j, 2016. 18(3): p. 589-604.-   4. Boelsterli, U. A., M. R. Redinbo, and K. S. Saitta, Multiple    NSAID-Induced Hits Injure the Small Intestine: Underlying Mechanisms    and Novel Strategies. Toxicol Sci, 2013. 131(2): p. 654-67.-   5. Aprile, G., et al., Treatment-related gastrointestinal toxicities    and advanced colorectal or pancreatic cancer: A critical update.    World J Gastroenterol, 2015. 21(41): p. 11793-803.-   6. Bentz, J., et al., Variability in P-Glycoprotein Inhibitory    Potency (IC(50)) Using Various in Vitro Experimental Systems:    Implications for Universal Digoxin Drug-Drug Interaction Risk    Assessment Decision Criteria. Drug Metab Dispos, 2013. 41(7): p.    1347-66.-   7. Prueksaritanont, T., et al., Comparative studies of    drug-metabolizing enzymes in dog, monkey, and human small    intestines, and in Caco-2 cells. Drug Metab Dispos, 1996. 24(6): p.    634-42.-   8. Yamaura, Y., et al., Functional Comparison of Human Colonic    Carcinoma Cell Lines and Primary Small Intestinal Epithelial Cells    for Investigations of Intestinal Drug Permeability and First-Pass    Metabolism. Drug Metab Dispos, 2016. 44(3): p. 329-35.-   9. Sato, T., et al., Long-term expansion of epithelial organoids    from human colon, adenoma, adenocarcinoma, and Barrett's epithelium.    Gastroenterology, 2011. 141(5): p. 1762-72.-   10. Yin, X., et al., Niche-independent high-purity cultures of Lgr5+    intestinal stem cells and their progeny. Nat Methods, 2014.    11(1): p. 106-12.-   11. Watson, C. L., et al., An in vivo model of human small intestine    using pluripotent stem cells. Nat Med, 2014. 20(11): p. 1310-4.-   12. Wang, X., et al., Cloning and variation of ground state    intestinal stem cells. Nature, 2015. 522(7555): p. 173-8.-   13. Fatehullah, A., S. H. Tan, and N. Barker, Organoids as an in    vitro model of human development and disease. Nat Cell Biol, 2016.    18(3): p. 246-54.-   14. Sinagoga, K. L. and J. M. Wells, Generating human intestinal    tissues from pluripotent stem cells to study development and    disease. Embo j, 2015. 34(9): p. 1149-63.-   15. Li, M., I. A. de Graaf, and G. M. Groothuis, Precision-cut    intestinal slices: alternative model for drug transport, metabolism,    and toxicology research. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol, 2016.    12(2): p. 175-90.-   16. Musther, H., et al., Animal versus human oral drug    bioavailability: do they correlate? Eur J Pharm Sci, 2014. 57: p.    280-91.-   17. Lahar, N., et al., Intestinal subepithelial myofibroblasts    support in vitro and in vivo growth of human small intestinal    epithelium. PLoS One, 2011. 6(11): p. e26898.-   18. Nguyen, D. G., et al., Bioprinted 3D Primary Liver Tissues Allow    Assessment of Organ-Level Response to Clinical Drug Induced Toxicity    In Vitro. PLoS One, 2016. 11(7): p. e0158674.-   19. King, S. M., et al., 3D Proximal Tubule Tissues Recapitulate Key    Aspects of Renal Physiology to Enable Nephrotoxicity Testing. Front    Physiol, 2017. 8: p. 123.-   20. Srinivasan, B., et al., TEER measurement techniques for in vitro    barrier model systems. J Lab Autom, 2015. 20(2): p. 107-26.-   21. Spence, J. R., et al., Directed differentiation of human    pluripotent stem cells into intestinal tissue in vitro.    Nature, 2011. 470(7332): p. 105-9.-   22. Schweinlin, M., et al., Development of an Advanced Primary Human    In Vitro Model of the Small Intestine. Tissue Eng Part C    Methods, 2016. 22(9): p. 873-83.-   23. Kauffman, A. L., et al., Alternative functional in vitro models    of human intestinal epithelia. Front Pharmacol, 2013. 4.-   24. VanDussen, K. L., et al., Development of an enhanced human    gastrointestinal epithelial culture system to facilitate    patient-based assays. Gut, 2015. 64(6): p. 911-20.-   25. Takenaka, T., et al., Application of a Human Intestinal    Epithelial Cell Monolayer to the Prediction of Oral Drug Absorption    in Humans as a Superior Alternative to the Caco-2 Cell Monolayer. J    Pharm Sci, 2016. 105(2): p. 915-24.-   26. Takenaka, T., et al., Human small intestinal epithelial cells    differentiated from adult intestinal stem cells as a novel system    for predicting oral drug absorption in humans. Drug Metab    Dispos, 2014. 42(11): p. 1947-54.-   27. Paine, M. F., et al., Characterization of interintestinal and    intraintestinal variations in human CYP3A-dependent metabolism. J    Pharmacol Exp Ther, 1997. 283(3): p. 1552-62.-   28. van de Kerkhof, E. G., et al., Innovative methods to study human    intestinal drug metabolism in vitro: precision-cut slices compared    with ussing chamber preparations. Drug Metab Dispos, 2006.    34(11): p. 1893-902.-   29. Kim, R. B., et al., Interrelationship between substrates and    inhibitors of human CYP3A and P-glycoprotein. Pharm Res, 1999.    16(3): p. 408-14.-   30. Peyrin-Biroulet, L., Anti-TNF therapy in inflammatory bowel    diseases: a huge review. Minerva Gastroenterol Dietol, 2010.    56(2): p. 233-43.-   31. Tomisato, W., et al., NSAIDs induce both necrosis and apoptosis    in guinea pig gastric mucosal cells in primary culture. Am J Physiol    Gastrointest Liver Physiol, 2001. 281(4): p. G1092-100.-   32. Cui, W., et al., Tumor necrosis factor alpha increases    epithelial barrier permeability by disrupting tight junctions in    Caco-2 cells. Braz J Med Biol Res, 2010. 43(4): p. 330-7.-   33. Shi, Y. and D. Cheng, Beyond triglyceride synthesis: the dynamic    functional roles of MGAT and DGAT enzymes in energy metabolism. Am J    Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 2009. 297(1): p. E10-8.

What is claimed is:
 1. A three-dimensional, engineered, biologicalintestinal tissue model comprising: i. a layer of intestinalinterstitial tissue comprising adult primary intestinal myofibroblasts,wherein the density of the layer of intestinal interstitial tissue is atleast about 5×10⁶ cells per milliliter; and ii. a layer of adult primaryintestinal epithelial cells in contact with the apical surface of thelayer of intestinal interstitial tissue; wherein the intestinal tissuemodel comprises a layered architecture, polarized epithelial morphology,and physiological barrier function that are capable of being maintainedfor over two weeks in culture.
 2. The intestinal tissue model of claim1, wherein at least one of the layer of intestinal interstitial tissueand layer of adult primary intestinal epithelial cells further comprisesat least one type of immune cell.
 3. The intestinal tissue model ofclaim 2, wherein the at least one type of immune cell is a myeloid celland/or lymphoid cell.
 4. The intestinal tissue model of claim 3, whereinthe myeloid cell and/or lymphoid cell is a monocyte, macrophage,neutrophil, basophil, eosinophil, dendritic cell, megakaryocyte, or acombination thereof.
 5. The intestinal tissue model of claim 3, whereinthe intestinal tissue model is capable of exhibiting fibrosis andfibrotic scar formation.
 6. The intestinal tissue model of claim 3,which is a model of Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, or inflammatorybowel disease.
 7. The intestinal tissue model of claim 1, wherein thelayer of adult primary intestinal epithelial cells comprises adultprimary epithelial cells from a healthy donor.
 8. The intestinal tissuemodel of claim 1, wherein the layer of adult primary intestinalepithelial cells further comprises at least one stem cell population. 9.The intestinal tissue model of claim 1, wherein at least one of thelayer of intestinal interstitial tissue and layer of adult primaryintestinal epithelial cells comprises cells from a donor with a diseasephenotype selected from the group consisting of: celiac disease, Crohn'sdisease, ulcerative colitis, irritable bowel syndrome, hemorrhoids,diverticulitis, inflammatory bowel disease, microscopic colitis,lymophocytic colitis, collagenous colitis, endocrine disorders,metabolic disorders, obesity, diabetes, dyslipidemia, intestinal cancer,or colorectal cancer.
 10. The intestinal tissue model of claim 9,wherein the layer of intestinal interstitial tissue comprises adultprimary intestinal myofibroblasts from a donor with the diseasephenotype and/or the layer of adult primary intestinal epithelial cellscomprises adult primary epithelial cells from a donor with the diseasephenotype.
 11. The intestinal tissue model of claim 9, wherein theintestinal tissue model further comprises tumor(s), tumor fragment(s),tumor cells, or immortalized cells.
 12. The intestinal tissue model ofclaim 11, wherein the tumor(s), tumor fragment(s), tumor cells orimmortalized cells are colorectal tumor(s), tumor fragment(s), tumorcells, or immortalized cells.
 13. The intestinal tissue model of claim11, wherein the layer of adult primary intestinal epithelial cellscomprises adult primary epithelial cells from a healthy donor.
 14. Theintestinal tissue model of claim 1 that: (i) exhibits at least one ofthe following: a. apical staining of villin; b. tight junctions; c. anapical brush border; d. villi-like structures on the epithelial surface;e. a basal lamina between the layer of interstitial tissue and layer ofepithelial cells; f. secretes mucus; g. expresses CYP3A4; h. expressesp-glycoprotein; i. expresses glucagon-like pepetide-I; j. expressesBCRP; k. contains enteroendocrine cells; or l. contains goblet cells;(ii) does not comprise a fully mature, perfusable vasculature; (iii)does not comprise red blood cells; (iv) is not innervated by the centralnervous system; or (v) a combination thereof.
 15. The intestinal tissuemodel of claim 1, wherein the layer of intestinal interstitial tissueand/or the layer of adult primary intestinal epithelial cells issubstantially a monolayer.
 16. The intestinal tissue model of claim 1,wherein the intestinal tissue model further comprises a biocompatiblemembrane in contact with the basolateral surface of the layer ofintestinal interstitial tissue.
 17. The intestinal tissue model of claim1, wherein the intestinal tissue model is at least 2 cell layers thick.18. The intestinal tissue model of claim 1, comprising at least onefirst region that comprises layers of intestinal interstitial tissue andadult primary intestinal epithelial cells, wherein each of the layers ofthe first region comprises cells from a healthy donor, and at least onesecond region that comprises layers of intestinal interstitial tissueand adult primary intestinal epithelial cells, wherein at least one ofthe layers of the second region comprises cells from a diseased donor.19. An array comprising a plurality of the intestinal tissue models ofclaim 1.